LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Methods of TEACHiia 



IN 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS 



BY 



G! DALLAS LIND, 



l.^^^ . 

>.:/-? 



k^,^ iQi9. ^^%: 

DANVILLE, INDIANA: 

THE " NORMATj teacher" PUBLISHING HOUSE, 

J. E. SHEERILL, PEOPRIETOE. 

Chas. L. Wolfe, Printer. 

1880. 

li'f] I 



LBiSSS 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1879, ^7 

J. E. SHERRILL, 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 

ALL RIGHTS KESERVKD. 



DEDICATION. 



To THE teachers of the country schools of the U. S., those who 
stand nominally on the lowest round of the Educational ladder, yet 
who possess the power to wield the greatest influence on the civili- 
zation and culture of our people, this volume is respectfully dedi- 
cated, (3) 



PREFACE. 



This book was written for country teachers, by a country teacher 
and though doubtless full of imperfections, it is hoped by the author 
that many things which he has learned in the school of experience, 
that dearest of teachers, the reader may learn by a careful perusal of 
its contents. 

Captious critics may find much to worry over, but the writer can 
assure them that they will not find anything which he has not worried 
over before them. 

A strictly logical arrangement of the subject has not been attempted. 
It was thought that a familiar conversational style was better adapted 
to the purpose in hand. 

It will be observed that frequent references are made from one part 
of the book to another. This was done to avoid repetition, and it i& 
hoped the teachers will make use of them. 

Central Normal College, Danville, Ind. 

(5) 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I.— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER I. — THE TEACHER. 

SEC. I. — Moral Qualifications _ - - - 9 

SEC. 2. — Mental Qualifications _ _ - 10 

SEC. 3. — Physical Qualifications - - - - 14 

SEC. 4. — Literary and Scientific Qualifications 18 

SEC 5. — Spirit of the Teacher - - - - 23 

SEC 6. — Personal Habits _ _ _ - 25 

SEC 7. — In Relation to Patrons - - - 27 

SEC 8. — In Relation to Society - - - 31 

SEC 9. — In Relation to the Profession - - 31 

CHAPTER n. THE SCHOOL. 

SEC. I. — Preliminary Work - - - - 34 

SEC 2. — Organizing _ _ _ _ - 37 

SEC 3. — Conducting Recitations ~ ~ ~ 39 

SEC 4. — Government ----- 44 

CHAPTER ni. THE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

SEC. I. — School Architecture - - - - 55 

SEC 2. — School Apparatus - - - - 62 

SEC 3. — Ventilation - - - - - - 64 

(7) 



VUl 

PART IL— METHODS OF TEACHING. 

CHAP. I. — Reading ------ 68 

CHAP. II. — Spelling and Defining - - - 88 

CHAP. III. — Arithmetic ----- 99 

CHAP. IV. — Geography - - - - - 113 

CHAP. V. — Grammar - - - - -127 

CHAP. VI. — History - - - - - 142 

CHAP. VII. — Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene - 149 

CHAP. VIII. — Algebra and the Higher Mathematics 155 

CHAP. IX. — Natural Sciences - - - - 159 

CHAP. X. — Morals and Manners - - - 169 

CHAP. XI. — Model Recitations - - - - 183 

CHAP. XII. — Miscellaneous _ - - _ 199 

CHAP. XIII. — Hints and Helps for the Teacher - 216 



PART I--SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER I. 



THE TEACHER. 

I. MORAL QUALIFICATIONS. 

All men, even the most vicious, will admit that he who 
is immoral should not be placed in the position of teach- 
er of youth. Popular opinion says teachers should have 
a good moral character, and all certificates require it, 
but how often, alas, is there a failure in carrying out 
this provision in practice. A man may be a very im- 
moral man and yet find no trouble in getting some one 
or more persons to certify to his moral character. The 
law can not reach this matter except in cases of out- 
breaking immorality. It rests, then, with the teacher 
himself and with his conscience. Ask yourself, young 
man, if you are a fit person to enter that sacred temple. 
Pause and purify yourself on the threshhold. Remem- 
ber that you carry about you a moral or immoral at- 
mosphere according to the condition of the soul within, 
and that the innocent youth must imbibe that atmos- 
phere be it healthful or poisonous. It is impossible for 
any one to be a successful hypocrite. He may be mor- 

(9) 



10 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ally rotten at heart and attempt to make an outward 
show of morality for the purpose of obtaining and hold- 
ing his position as teacher, but youth are not so easily 
deceived and moral instruction will have but little weight 
coming from such a man. The inward character of a 
man will crop out in spite of himself. In his teaching, 
in his government, in his conversation, in the family, or 
on the play ground, the character of the teacher will 
exhibit itself unconsciously to him but plainly to others. 
Says Dr. Holland, " The mind that has become a treas- 
ure house of truth and beauty speaks a world into 
existence with every utterance. * ^ * We give 
what we have received — that which is in us will out of 
us. Expression is the necessity of possession." If the 
teacher's heart is a " treasure house of truth and beauty " 
it will overflow, exerting an ennobling influence on all 
who may come near it. On the other hand if it be a 
*' whitened sepulcher, filled with dead men's bones and 
all uncleanness," it will pollute all who have to deal with 
it. 

The teacher must be not only a moral but a religious 
man, not of that kind who love to " display to congrega- 
tions wide, devotions, every grace except the heart," 
but one who loves God and his fellow man and obeys 
the golden rule, not from policy but as the deep seated 
conviction of his soul. 

II. MENTAL QUALIFICATIONS. 

The teacher may be a truly moral and religious man 
and yet be entirely incompetent. He must have certain 
mental qualifications. It is not my purpose here to enter 
into a lengthy discussion of the mental faculties of man, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 11 

but simply to hint at a few things by which the teacher 
may measure himself. 

1. He should have a cheerftd and ho-peful disposition. 
The school-room is no place for a gloomy, sour, de- 
spondent nature. Children and youth are naturally 
buoyant and hopeful, but their impressible natures may 
be easily warped by constant contact with a morose dis- 
position. 

2. He should be kind and benevolent. No human 
heart is proof against the power of kindness. Even 
brute nature may be greatly impressed by it. I need 
not enlarge upon this point, although it would be easy 
to multiply words. The reader can see for himself the 
necessity of this faculty in a teacher. 

3. He shoidd be open, frank and unsuspicious. These 
are noble qualities, but I would not be misunderstood 
here. I do not mean that a teacher should be so unsus- 

•picious that he will consider all children as born angels 
who can do no harm. Children sometimes need watch- 
ing, but the teacher who acts as a detective or spy and 
constantly exhibits that disposition should have no place 
in the school-room. He should ever remember that 
there is a spark of honor in every breast and that senti- 
ment should be appealed to and trusted in if he would 
attain control over vicious dispositions. He should 
always be ready to confess himself in the wrong when 
he sees he has made a mistake. 

4. He shoidd have a love of the work. This implies 
a love for children. He who has not the faculty called 
by Phrenologists Philoprogenitiveness well developed, 
should not choose the profession of teacher. He must 
have a love for the profession or he can not take a deep 



12 METHODS OF TEACHING 

interest in it. He can have little control of children 
unless he can sympathize with them and he can not 
sympathize with them unless he loves them. He should 
have this love sufficiently strong to be able to encourage 
their efforts and bear with their shortcomings, to feel for 
their sorrows, to lift up the despondent, to bring out the 
timid, to hold in check the bold, to conquer the obstinate 
and in general to throw his whole soul into the work of 
improving their physical, mental and moral condition. 

5. He should be conscientious. This faculty leads a 
man to do right because it is right; to shun the wrong 
because it is wrong. He must feel that it is his duty to 
teach well and feel conscience-smitten if he leaves undone 
what he might have done for the benefit of those under 
his care. Without this feeling no one can become a 
good teacher. All men have this faculty in some degree, 
but those in whom it is feebly developed are the rogues, 
scoundrels and hypocrites of society. A lack of this 
feeling has filled our jails and penitentiaries and furnished 
subjects for the gallows. This faculty should be culti- 
vated in children and youth, and the teacher who has 
it largely developed himself is best calculated to teach it. 

6. He should he a lover of order. In no place is order 
and system needed more than in the school-room. If 
the teacher be not naturally systematic, he should use 
his utmost endeavors to improve himself in this respect. 
Let him make order and S5^stem a study. Let him 
practice it everywhere, even to the minor details of daily 
duties. He should practice keeping the articles in his 
room in order, the books on the shelves, &c., until it 
becomes a kind of second nature to him. 

7. He should be firm and self-reliajit. This quality 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 13 

may easily be carried to extremes. Many men have the 
faculty of firmness so weU developed that it becomes 
mere obstinacy and mulishness, or they are so impressed 
with the importance of being sole master of whatever 
is in their charge that they become tyrants and despots. 
The true teacher must avoid either extreme. If he is 
kind and conscientious and loves children he can be firm 
without being despotic, self-reliant without being bigoted 
and can govern with justice and equity. 

8. He should have a social and agreeable nature. A 
teacher should have none of the disposition of a hermit. 
He may succeed in some other occupations and not be 
of a social nature, but in this he can not. The teacher's 
business is to improve society and therefore he must 
make himself one of the mass. He must have a kind 
word for every one, must have the power of adapting 
himself to different classes of people and making his 
company agreeable to them, but at the same time 
maintaining his self-respect and moral dignity. (See 
pp. 29 and 31). 

To be a good teacher a man should have a good 
brain, all the mental faculties well developed. A man 
may be able to make a good wagon wheel or pair of boots 
and be greatly lacking in many of the mental faculties. 
He may be a good penman, musician, or artist, and 
lack conscientiousness and benevolence. But a man 
can not be a successful teacher who is greatly lacking 
in any faculty, that is he can not teach everything. The 
teacher in our public schools is required to teach some- 
thing of almost everything, either directly or indirectly. 
Such also is the intimate inter-relation of the branches 
of knowledge that to be proficient in any one branch a 



14: METHODS OF TEACHING 

man must have some acquaintance with all other 
branches. A man can not teach that which he does 
not know. A teacher can not have too much know- 
ledge. He can not have a knowledge of a branch 
unless he has a good development of the mental faculty 
which is necessary to have, in order to acquire that 
branch. (See p. i8). 

Do not think, teacher, that it is absolutely necessary 
to be born with a full development of these mental quali- 
fications. Almost any person of ordinary mental calibre 
can acquire these qualifications Ly persistent study and 
practice. If, then, you are lacking in some of the men- 
tal faculties necessary to make a good teacher let it be 
your constant study to improve yourself. Let the motto, 
" KNOW THYSELF," be cvcr present before your mind, 
and apply your energies to the improvement of those 
parts which are lacking. You may be lacking in one 
faculty and yet be able to make up for it in part by a 
full development of some other faculty, but nothing is 
of so great advantage as a brain well balanced. If you 
are greatly lacking in any of these-parts you would better 
seek some other employment as the experience neces- 
sary to improve you will be at the expense of your 
pupils and patrons and a constant source of vexation to 
yourself. If every teacher would look in upon himself 
and when he finds he is not fitted for the place he occu- 
pies, would step down and out and enter some other 
profession or adopt some other employment, the condi- 
tion of our schools would soon improve rapidly. 

III. PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS. 

The teacher must have good health. The school- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 15 

room is not a proper place for an invalid. It is often the 
case, that persons who are from some physical defect 
unfitted for occupations requiring manual labor, enter 
the teaching profession, hoping thus to make a living. 
Again, many enter the profession with good constitu- 
tions to retire from it in a few years with impaired 
health and seek some other occupation from which they 
hope to regain their lost vitality. The former should 
not and the latter need not be the case. No man who 
from physical reasons is unable to work should make 
this an excuse for teaching school. If he has the proper 
mental qualifications and good health, though he may 
lack a limb or the use of one, yet he is capable of teach- 
ing school. If the teacher understands and practices 
the laws of health, he may live as long and enjoy as 
good health as in any other occupation. There is not 
space in a treatise of this kind for a full discussion of 
the question of hygiene. A few hints and suggestions, 
however, will not be out of place. 

A man may follow some out-door occupation, being 
possessed of a robust constitution, and live and enjoy 
excellent health for years and never take a thought 
about the matter. Exercise of the body, pure air and 
sunshine will go far towards. making up for excesses in 
eating and drinking, or for want of sleep. But a teacher 
is for a great part of the time deprived of the opportu- 
nity for bodily exercise, often of pure air and sunshine. 
He should then whenever opportunity presents take 
daily exercise in the open air and sunshine. Most coun- 
try teachers board or live at some distance from the 
school-house and the necessary walk to and from school 
affords an opportunity to enjoy these three essentials of 



16 METHODS OF TEACHING 

health. Some persons need more exercise than others. 
Those of a rough and sturdy build need bodily exercise 
more than those of more delicate frame. Persons with 
delicate frames often overdo this matter of exercise and 
the very thing which, if properly conducted would be 
of great benefit, becomes an injury to them. Exercise 
to be beneficial should stop short of moderate fatigue. 

The teacher should not be above manual labor. An 
hour each day spent in chopping or sawing wood would, 
in many cases, be of great benefit to the teacher's health 
and would not detract from his popularity. Let the 
teacher take his place on the play ground and exercise 
with the pupils in their games. (See 228.) The study 
of some branch of Natural Science, as Botany, Zoology, 
or Geology, will necessarily lead the teacher to take walks 
in pursuit of knowledge. Such rambles among rocks 
and trees will be food for both body and mind. Riding 
ou horseback, rowing, skating, driving, working in the 
garden, or at the various occupations on the farm are 
all to be highly recommended, if not indulged in to 
excess, as beneficial to the teacher's health. 

What must I say about diet? Books have been writ- 
ten on the subject and yet men may follow their instruc- 
tions to the letter and come out in a few years dyspep- 
tics. But I will say, be temperate. It is not so much 
what you eat as it is how you eat it. Regular meals 
when the occupation is regular, and moderate in quan- 
tity, eaten slowly, with cheerful company, not too great 
a variety at one meal to tempt the appetite, but a variety 
from day to day, not very much animal food, an avoid- 
ance of pastry, plenty of ripe fruits and vegetables, food 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 17 

coarse rather than fine — these requirements will keep 
one in health so far as diet is concerned. 

Another essential to perfect health is cleanliness. 
Frequent bathing of the whole body in warm or tepid 
water with free use of soap and frequent change of 
Underclothing will go far towards maintaining health- 
Bathing may be carried to excess. The skin may be 
excited unduly, causing extreme sensitiveness to changes 
of temperature. Once a week in winter, and two or 
three times a week in summer is often enough. The 
same clothing that is worn in day time, should not be 
worn at night. The clothes worn next the skin in day 
time should be removed, and allowed to air at night. 
They may be put on again in the morning, and those 
worn at night allowed to air. 

Tobacco, tea, coflee and spirituous liquors, are not 
necessary for any one, and though not all of them 
always injurious, the teacher will do well to let them 
severely alone. (See p. 25). 

I have given here a few hints which I trust will be 
regarded by the teacher, and if he is not already inform- 
ed in the matter of hygiene, I hope he will study it, and 
apply his knowledge to the care of his physical organ- 
ization. 

Said John Locke, nearly two hundred years ago, " A 
sound mind in a sound body is a short, but full descrip- 
tion of a happy state in this world." A man can not 
have a perfectly sound mind without a sound body, and 
certainly, though one may enjoy existence without a 
sound mind, he is not capable of filling the position of 

teacher. 

2 



18 METHODS OF TEACHING 

IV. SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS. 

It is generally supposed that to teach a primary school 
or such a school as is generally found in country districts, 
requires but slight culture and scholarship. While it is 
true that a man may be a good and successful teacher of 
the common branches, and know nothing whatever of 
Latin or Greek, or of the higher mathematics, or of the 
natural sciences, it is also true, that had he knowledge 
of these higher branches, he would be a better teacher. 
To say nothing of the culture and enlargement of the 
mind, by the study of science, and languages, the mere 
knowledge obtained is of great value, even to the teacher 
of the most primary class. 

Under the present state of society, we can not expect 
teachers all to be great scholars. They may commence 
teaching with no more education than that to be obtained 
in common country schools, but they should not be con- 
tent with that. While they teach they should study, 
study not only how best to teach, but to improve their 
minds in higher branches of knowledge. (See page 

13)- 

The teacher should always be a learner, and if he is 
a true teacher, he will learn more than his pupils. He 
will learn not only more of the branches, he is teaching, 
but will make rapid progress in the higher branches of 
knowledge. His first endeavor should be to attain ordi- 
nary proficiency in the branches he is required to teach. 
This he should have before attempting to manage a 
school. Then while teaching he should study the les- 
sons ahead of his classes, that he may come before them 
prepared to demonstrate any point which may come up. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 19 

At the same time he is keeping ahead of his classes 
in the common branches, he should pursue some one of 
the higher branches. He should not, however, under- 
take too many studies at once. Let him take one extra 
study at a time, and when he has attained considerable 
proficiency, take up another. 

Many a 3^oung man has acquired a knowledge of the 
higher branches by study of books without a teacher, 
and man}^ young men can yet do so, but in these days 
of cheap schools, no young man who expects to become 
a teacher, should fail to spend at least one term in some 
Normal school, or institution where he may obtain a 
knowledge of literature and science. He may, if he have 
a good common school education, teach a term or two in 
the country and then spend his earnings in taking a 
course of study in some wide-awake institution. I would 
not recommend a college course, where the energetic 
country youth is held back to keep pace with sons of rich 
men, who are sent there, to spend their fathers' money, 
and receive a thin coat of polish which will not stand 
the hard knocks of that greatest educator of all, the 
actual business world. The young man may do as I 
have known young men to do, borrow money to take a 
course at school, and then go home and teach, and earn 
the money to pay it back. If such a course can be pur- 
sued, the young man can well afford to pay a good 
interest on the mone}/'. 

You can acquire the fundamental principles of the 
sciences under a competent instructor, and in contact with 
others who are enthusiastically pursuing the same study, 
much more rapidly than by your own unaided study. 
Having thus had a start, you can pursue these branches at 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING 

your leisure, during your odd moments, and while you 
are earning some money, and improving yourself in the 
common branches, and in the art of teaching school, and 
gaining experience of great value. 

Much may be learned by improving the odd moments. 
It is said that Dickens never wrote more than two hours 
a day, and we wonder at the immense amount of literary 
work he accomplished. But a short time each day will 
accomplish wonders. It is not the protracted efforts once 
in a month or so that count, but it is the little every day. 
Let no day pass in which ycu do not do some studpng, 
be it ever so little. The teacher has ample time if he im- 
prove it properly, to inform himself. He has mornings 
and evenings and Saturdays to study. He can also use a 
portion of his noons and recesses in looking over his 
lessons for the day. 

It is best to have some regular programme for study 
and recreation. For example, let him devote half an 
hour each morning and evening to the study of some 
science, not allowing any ordinaiy circumstances to 
detract from this half-hour twice each day. Let him 
devote an hour each Saturday to the study of history, 
another hour to reading works on teaching or educa- 
tion, and half an hour each morning and evening to the 
preparation for his daily recitations, and the remainder 
of his leisure time to general reading, recreation and 
exercise. The time usually spent in loafing at the village 
store, or in idle conversation, would be better consumed 
in general reading, such as newspapers, magazines, even 
fiction. I would advise the teacher to be careful what 
fictitious works he reads. The standard authors as 
Dickens, Scott, Mrs. Stowe, may be dipped into lightly, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 21 

but too much time spent even in reading the best and 
purest works of fiction is but wasted. Remember 
that you have a life-time in which to read these works, 
and do not be in a hurry to finish them. Use them as 
a means of mental relaxation, but do not be carried away 
by them. If you find they are absorbing too much of 
your attention, stop and lay them aside. Better even 
never read fiction at all if you find you can not control 
your appetite for it. You are driving a fast team, and 
you need keep a tight rein. There is plenty of interest- 
ing general reading to occupy your leisure besides fiction. 
Read works of travel, biographies, historical works, and 
miscellaneous sketches and you will find yourself better 
informed, and at the same time rested from more active 
labors. If you can take up a work of fiction, and read 
a few minutes, and then lay it down without an effort, 
you are perfectly safe, but if it absorbs so much of your 
mind, and excites your imagination so much that you 
will sit up half a night to finish a novel, you would better 
never look inside of one. I was once a whole year 
reading one of Dickens' novels, and I am positive that 
it did me more good than if I had read it in two days 
or two weeks. I have done a great deal of light reading 
while walking to and from school, but as this is hard on 
the eyes, I would not recommend it. Perhaps if not 
more than five or ten minutes at a time is spent in this 
way, no harm can result to the eyes. It is a good plan 
to carry a book with you, and read a page or two, and 
then with your eyes off the book, resting them, think 
over what you have read. Consider for a moment what 
may be accomplished in this way. You may read a 
page in a minute, and ten pages each day will amount 



22 METHODS OF TEACHING 

to a large book at the end of the year. If you are 
enthusiastic you will always carry a book or magazine 
with you, and read while waiting for your meals, for the 
train, anywhere and everywhere opportunity presents 
to occupy a few moments in this way. This may sound 
trifling, but remember that, " trifles light as air make up 
the sum of human things," and " little drops of water, 
little grains of sand, make the mighty ocean, and the 
bounteous land." 

The teacher needs a general knowledge not only to 
enable him to teach well, but enable him to fill a high 
place in society. But almost every man has some 
special talent in some direction, a special love and 
talent for some science or art and this he should cul- 
tivate. Do you take more interest in Geology than 
any other science, then commence a collection of 
specimens and use every opportunity to inform your- 
self in this specialty. If it is Botany, collect a her- 
barium. If Chemistry, get a few chemicals and appa- 
ratus and go to experimenting. If you have a talent 
for Music or Painting, cultivate it. 

In general, let the teacher make ample preparation 
for his work, and though he do not follow it for a life- 
time, the culture he receives will be of inestimable value 
in whatever profession or walk of life he may choose or 
be driven to accept. Do not think that because you are 
only a country teacher that you need no special training 
or that you will never amount to anything in the world. 
Some of the greatest statesmen and scientists, poets and 
authors of this country began their career as teachers 
of country schools. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 23 

V. THE SriRIT OF THE TEACHER, 

Every person who enters the sacred temple of the 
school-room for the purpose of assuming control of the 
young and budding minds which daily assemble for 
instruction, should make a careful self-examination and 
inquire what are his motives and what the spirit which 
prompts him to such a step. Is it for money alone? Is 
it for popularity? Is it because he is unfitted for any 
other occupation? Is it because he loves to display his 
knowledge ? If he has no higher motives than these he 
would better for the sake of those who are to be under 
his care and for his own sake, enlist in the army, go to 
the poor-house or run off' to sea. 

I can not better express what I wish my readers to 
know than in the language of an old and prominent 
educator whose " Theoj'y and Practice of Teaching'''' was 
of great value to me in my first years of teaching. I 
refer to David P. Page, who says, " But the trite spirit 
of the teacher^ — a spirit that seeks not alone pecuniary 
emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree useful 
to those who are taught; a spirit that elevates above 
everything else the nature and capabilities of the human 
soul, and that trembles under the responsibility of 
attempting to be its educator; a spirit that looks upon 
gold as the contemptible dross of the earth, when com- 
pared with that imperishable gem which is to be polish- 
ed and brought out into heaven's light to shine forever; 
a spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth and seeks 
that highest of all rewards, an approving conscience and 
an approving God ; a spirit that earnestly inquires what 
is right, and that dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING 

that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God 
in every child, and that burns with the desire to be 
instrumental in training it to the highest attainment of 
which it is capable, — such a spirit is the first thing to be 
sought by the teacher, and without it the highest talent 
can not make him truly excellent in his profession." 

Cultivate such a spirit and with a good moral charac- 
ter, with good mental and physical •endowments you 
will be in the highest degree successful. There are 
many who make teaching the stepping-stone to some 
more lucrative employment or profession. I can not 
say that this is altogether wrong. While it is true that 
experience makes good teachers, and men who liave 
been a life-time trying to improve themselves in the art 
of teaching are generally the best teachers, yet experi- 
ence is not really necessary to make a good teacher. If 
a young man throws his whole soul into the work and 
has the proper qualifications he may teach as well the 
first school he undertakes as he would after forty years' 
experience. He may profit by the experience and mis- 
takes of others. The trouble is not so much that men 
make teaching a stepping-stone to something else, but 
it lies in the fact that men do not learn to do with their 
might what they find to do. A young man may be 
preparing for the law, medicine or the ministry, and at 
the same time be wholly and heartily enlisted in the 
work of teaching. If we consider the matter aright a 
man should be a teacher in any profession and he who 
does his best while teaching will be very apt to do his 
best in whatever other profession he may afterwards 
choose. In other words, if he have the true spirit of the 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 25 

teacher he will have the true spirit of the lawyer, physi- 
cian or minister. 

VI. PERSONAL HABITS. 

If men were perfectly well balanced morally, mentally 
and physically, perhaps they would have no bad habits; 
but be that as it may, a few words here in regard to the 
habits of the teacher will not be out of place. The 
power of habit is great, but there are few men who 
have habits which they can not break, and every man 
can cultivate good habits. Do you use tobacco? Break 
it off when you enter the profession of teacher. You 
can do it. All you have to do is to quit. If you have 
not the moral stamina to say to yourself, I will not be 
ruled by habit, you are not fit for a teacher. Of course, 
no one who pretends in this day to teach, uses ardent 
spirits, at least they are so few that I need not say any- 
thing about it here. 

As the following points have been touched upon else- 
where, I wish merely to call attention under this head 
to some of the good habits the teacher should endeavor 
to cultivate. 

I. Neatness of fer son and dress. The teacher should 
dress well, not necessarily in costly garments but neatly, 
plainly, and according to his circumstances. A thread- 
bare coat even if " out at the elbows " will look well 
with a clean, well-laundried shirt and collar, a neat neck 
tie and clean, polished boots or shoes. All flashy, fop- 
pish costume is out of place upon the teacher. The 
morning ablution of face and hands, neck and ears and 
attention to the finger nails and teeth are of importance 
to neatness of appearance. Cutting apd cleaning the 



26 METHODS OF TEACHING 

iinger nails and picking the teeth are improper in com- 
pany. A frequent use of a clothes brush to remove 
dust and spots of grease, and of a hair brush to remove 
dandruff is necessary. JVb -person can he clean and use 
tobacco. 

He yvho is neat of person and dress w^ill necessarily 
try to keep the school-room neat and clean. 

2. System and regularity. Let everything the teacher 
does be done in a regular and systematic manner. This 
habit once fixed is of incalculable importance. Nearly 
all men who have made a name and fortune in business 
will tell you that they owed much of their success to the 
habit of doing everything according to system. (See 
p. 12). 

3. Politeness. This is one of the necessary habits of 
the teacher. The true teacher is ever the true gentle- 
man. He will be polite and courteous in manner and 
in language. True politeness has its origin in love. He 
who loves his fellow man as the Saviour commanded 
will ever be polite. It is the spontaneous overflow of a 
generous and noble spirit. The teacher who posesses 
this quality will exercise politeness to all with whom he 
comes in contact. He will have a word for everybody, 
and a kind look and engaging manner towards children. 
His conversation will not be polluted with slang, nor 
poisoned with profanity. 

4. Punctuality. This habit should be studiousty cul- 
tivated. If the teacher is not prompt and punctual he 
can not expect his pupils to be. He should carry this 
habit into everything he undertakes. Be punctual to all 
engagments, whether to meet a friend, to attend church, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 27 

to business matters, to school duties, or in whatever you 
may have to do with your fellow man. 

5. Studiousness. Study must be made a habit. As- 
sign certain stated times for study, and conscientiously 
devote the required time to it. You must study every 
day, if it is only a little. 

VII. IN RELATION TO PATRONS. 

The highest duty of man is to please God, next to 
please his fellow man and lastly to please himself. The 
majority of men, perhaps, reverse this order in practice. 
But if a man do right he will please God, all good men 
and himself. A great responsibility rests upon the 
teacher. He is placed in charge of a number of human 
beings, young, inexperienced, of impressible and elastic 
nature, capable of being moulded, bended at the will of 
the operator. He holds these beings in trust and is 
responsible for their well-being and advancement while 
under his care. It is true a teacher has a hard task and 
too much is often expected of him. V/hen children are 
without moral or mental training at home and inherit 
passions and appetites from vicious parents, it is not to 
be supposed the teacher during the comparatively short 
time they are under his care, should reform and change 
their nature. But much can be done towards this result 
and the most earnest worker will accomplish the most. 

The teacher should endeavor to please his patrons. 
In order to do this his patrons should be acquainted with 
his plans and modes of work. Every parent in the 
district should be visited at least once during the term 
of school and if possible every parent should be induced 
to visit the school. The teacher should anticipate any 
trouble which may arise between him and the parents. 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING 

visit them and talk the matter over, and if possible, nip 
the trouble in the bud. If the child brings any orders 
or instructions to the teacher from the parent, the teacher 
should at once visit that parent and talk the matter over 
and come to a fair understanding. In nine cases out of 
ten, the parent will yield to the teacher's plans and ap- 
prove of them, where otherwise if the teacher had gone 
on, and done as he thought best without consulting the 
parent, he would have made an enemy of him, much to 
his subsequent regret. There should be a perfect under- 
standing between teacher and patron, and perfect co- 
operation in the plans of teacher and school board. 

The country teacher will find all kinds of men to deal 
with. He will find mercenary, close-fisted school direc- 
tors, who will grudge him his wages, and will not listen 
to any demands for expenditures in regard to the school 
or school-house. He will find directors who are careless 
and indifferent to the matter, who will not express an 
opinion in regard to his plans, tell him to go ahead and 
do as he thinks best, but if any trouble arises, in which 
their children are concerned, they will be the first to make 
complaint and spread evil reports about the teacher. 
He will find men who are continually meddling and 
causing trouble in the school. He will find famihes 
who, having feuds among themselves, will carry them 
into the school-room, and the teacher will be put to his 
wit's end to manage matters. He will find the north 
end of the district arrayed against the south end, a vil- 
lage part against the country part of a district, political 
troubles, differences among rich and poor, all of which 
will affect the welfare of his school. The teacher then 
needs to be a tactician of high order. He should be 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 29 

ever on the watch-tower to foresee these difficulties and 
devise some means to meet them. 

The teacher should make himself familiar with his 
patrons, take an interest in their business, not in a med- 
dling manner, but that he may converse with them on 
topics with which the}?- are familiar. Let him talk to 
the farmer about his crops, to the stock raiser or dealer 
about his cattle and hogs, to the mechanic about his 
work, &c. Let him not be too ready to communicate 
knowledge, but rather be a good listener, and by a few 
judicious questions lead them to do the greater part of 
the talking. In this way he will make himself agree- 
able to his patrons, and they can not have reason to 
think he feels above them. Poor people and many 
country people are very sensitive on this point and are 
often ready to think a man feels himself above them 
when no such thing is true. In many localities there is 
nothing that people so much detest as what they style a 
"big-feeling" person or a "big-head." A teacher in 
the country must have a good deal of the " do-as-the- 
Romans-do" feeling in order to succeed. St. Paul said, "I 
was all things to all men, that I might win some." So it 
must be with the teacher to a certain extent. (See p. 13). 

A few words in this connection about making appli- 
cation for a school will not be inappropriate. The 
teacher has here an opportunity to try his tact. I 
do not mean that he should try his skill in driving a 
sharp bargain although it is sometimes necessary, for 
school boards will hire a teacher as they would buy a 
pair of shoes, but I mean that he should so adapt him- 
self to circumstances that he may make the most favor- 
able impression upon the men with whom he is dealing. 



30 METHODS OF TEACHING 

To illustrate I will at the risk of seeming egotistic, relate 
a bit of my own experience in this line. I had just been 
attending a Normal school in the vicinity and the school 
boards in that section had been imposed upon in a num- 
ber of instances by young men who attending this 
school and having run short of funds, attempted to raise 
them by seeking employment in the neighborhood as 
teachers. Of course I was asked immediately if I had 
been a student of said school and on answering in the 
affirmative was met with the rebuff that I was not 
wanted. Before coming to the next man I determined 
to change my tactics. It was harvest time and I found 
the men busy in the field. I climbed over the fence and be- 
gan binding wheat until I came up to the men. Having 
found the director, I kept on at work while talking to 
him. He never thought of inquiring whether I was 
from that school but I was told afterwards that I had 
created a favorable impression because I seemed not to 
be afraid of work. I contracted for that school at my 
own figures. I do not give this as a model way of ap- 
plying for a school but to illustrate the power of tact. 
Remember that tact outweighs talent very often. Show 
that you mean business and do not display any disposi- 
tion to yield to the desire for a cheap teacher. Teach- 
ers themselves are very often to blame for their low 
wages. If they would use a little of the shrewdness 
used by the farmer selling a horse the standard of wages 
would increase. In the first place you should qualify 
yourself to teach and then rate your services sufficiently 
high. A poor teacher is like poor butter, dear at any 
price. 

Always make a written contract. In some places it 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 31 

is required by boards of education ; in others merely a 
verbal contract is all that is asked. 

VIII. IN RELATION TO SOCIETY. 

The teacher should be a model man in the community 
in which he moves. If he has all the requirements of 
a true teacher, he will be a model man, and very little 
more need be said on this point. He should be emi- 
nently of a social disposition, and mingle much with 
society. It is proper to see the teacher take a part in 
social parties, in the Sunday school, in church, in all 
meetings and organizations which are for the public 
good. He should not, however, show a partisan or sec- 
tarian spirit, nor on the other hand, attempt to please all 
by carrying water on both shoulders. But let him be 
straightforward, candid and honest in his views and utter- 
ances. He may have his political creed and religious 
creed but it is not well to make much of a display of 
either. Let him show the teacher in all that he does, 
teaching both by example and precept, not intruding his 
services but ready and willing at all times to respond to 
the public desire. He should be above those little envies 
and jealousies which abound in some communities. He 
should have none of that disposition which finds utter- 
ance in the expression, " If I can not have the best place 
I do not want any." Fie should have none of the " rule 
or ruin" policy. (See p. 13). 

IX. IN RELATION TO THE PROFESSION. 

"Iron sharpeneth iron." The teacher should come 
frequently in contact with others of his class. He 
can learn something from every teacher. Let him 
visit other schools and observe the work of other teach- 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ers. He will not fail to find something to model after 
or see something to avoid. His own faults may be re- 
peated by some one else and by seeing them in others 
he is more apt to see that the}^ are faults. He may 
learn much by conversing v/ith other teachers, especi- 
ally with those who have had more experience, and he 
Should seek opportunity to converse with such teachers. 

He should attend and take part in teachers' institutes 
and associations. The country teachers are too apt to 
stand back and the city teachers who generally conduct 
such institutes willingly permit them to do so. We 
hear the frequent complaint that institutes are of little 
benefit to country teachers. It is only too true. 
The plans and methods there discussed and presented 
by prominent educators are rarely applicable to the 
country school. Many of the institute lecturers are men 
who never taught in a country school, or if they did it 
was many years before, and the ideas they have are 
such as they have acquired by reading or theorizing in 
their study-rooms. These men will take a class of 
young men and women and proceed to instruct them as 
though they were small children, expecting to exhibit 
in this way their modes of instructing children. Did it 
never occur to any of them or to their hearers that if a 
class of real children were before them matters might 
not proceed so smoothly? Some of these prominent 
institute instructors I fear would not make a success of 
a school in a back-woods district. 

A good plan for country teachers would be to organ- 
ize township institutes and instruct each other. Let 
them be something of the nature of a medical society, 
consisting of free interchange of thought and opinion in 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 33 

the form of essays, orations, debates, &c. If all the 
teachers of a township can not be brought together, let 
any half dozen or more teachers organize themselves 
into a society and meet once or twice a month on Sat- 
urdays at convenient places. Much good might be 
done in this way. I am appealing now to the reader of 
this book to work up something of this kind in his neigh- 
borhood. You can do it and you ought to do it. Large 
sums are annually expended in almost every county 
for prominent instructors at teachers' institues. Does 
the outlay pay? It undoubtedly pays the instructors 
but I fear the country teacher is paying a big price to 
hear a " big gun " which makes but little more than 
noise after all. These local or township societies will 
cost scarcely anything and will be of undoubted value to 
the teachers. 



CHAPTER 11. 



THE SCHOOL. 

I. PRELIxMINARY WORK. 

The teacher's work begins the moment he has con- 
tracted for the school. He should endeavor first to learn 
something of the nature of the school he is about to un- 
dertake. This knowledge he may obtain from the 
parents, from the former teachers, and possibly, from 
the children themselves. Spend a week or more in get- 
ting acquainted with the parents and pupils. You need 
not use any formality but drop into their homes and 
chat with them. You will learn all sorts of things about 
the school in an indirect manner and without asking 
many questions. They will be ready to tell you all 
about the school as conducted the previous term and 
about the bad pupils and what parents are meddlesome 
and you will hear all sorts of opinions about the former 
teacher. You can then make up some opinion from 
this evidence, conflicting though it may be. You should 
visit the school-house and find out what repairs or appa- 
ratus may be needed and kindly ask the Directors to 

(34) 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 35 

have things in order before school commences. You 
should unfold to them your plans and, i£ possible, obtain 
their promise of co-operation. If possible, see or cor- 
respond with the previous teacher and learn from him 
his plans and such knowledge of the school as he may 
be able to give. 

There is nothing like making a good beginning. Hav- 
ing found out what kind of a school you are likely to 
have and what branches will be studied, you can have 
a programme made out before entering the school. Of 
course it may be necessary to make changes in the pro- 
gramme, but it is best to have one made out in general 
form before the first day of school. 

A programme will vary according to the number and 
character of the branches taught and somewhat accord- 
ing to the number of pupils in the school. The teacher 
is required by law to teach so many hours. I would ad- 
vise a teacher to be prompt and punctual to time, not 
teaching any more nor any less than the required time. 
Schools in the country usually begin at 9 o'clock and 
close at 4 with one hour for noon and two recesses of 15 
minutes each. I have here a programme which provides 
within the time allotted, space for all the branches usual- 
ly taught in the country school. It is a programme both 
of recitation and study, and for convenience I have divid- 
ed the school into three grades on the subject of reading. 
The A grade consists of the ist, 2nd, and 3rd Readers; 
the B grade of the 4th and 5th Readers, and the c grade 
of the 6th Reader. The words in Ibolcl faced type 
denote recitations; in common type, studies. It is sup- 
posed that part of the advanced lessons will be prepared 
outside of school hours. It will be objected, perhaps, 



36 METHODS OF TEACHING 

by some that the time allotted to recitations is too short. 
I answer that I have been obliged to teach all the above 
branches within the allotted time and of course had to 
do the best I could. If there are not so many branches, 
then more time can be allowed to the others. I have here 
provided for the extreme cases. It will be observed that 
there is no time for a .Primary Grammar class. The 
reader is referred to the chapter on Grammar for an 
explanation. I have grouped all beginners in reading 
as the Primer class. Durino; the winter months in 
some schools there will be none to represent this class, 
none but can read in the ist Reader. The programme 
is so arranged that the very small pupils may be dis- 
missed half an hour earlier than the others; also, that 
they can be allowed to go out and play in fine weather 
after they have recited. It will be seen that the time to 
study a lesson is provided, so far as possible, immediately 
after the recitation. This should be insisted on from the 
beginning. 

The grades a, b and c are only here given for con- 
venience in arranging the programme. They are not 
absolute divisions of the school. As a general rule those 
placed in the b grade will study Primary Geography, 
Arithmetic to about as far as Fractions and be in the 
Primary Spelling class ; but some who are in this grade 
may study Grammar, Advanced Geography, History, 
or Physiology, and some who are in the c grade may 
be in a Primary Geography class or Primary Spelling 
class. These grades are, therefore, only arbitrary divis- 
ions necessary to form a programme both of study and 
recitation. Many pupils may belong to two of the 
grades. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



37 



PROGRAMME OF RECITATION AND STUDY: 



TIME. 


A GRADE. 


B GRADE. 


C GRADE 


Begins | Ends | Continues. 




g, 1 9:5 i S 1 GENERAL EXERCISES. 


9:5 1 9:15 10 Primer Class 
9:15 9:2s 10 1st Reader Snellino- 
9:2s 9:3s 10 3nd Reader bpellmg 
9:3s 9'4S 10 3rd Reader | 


Spelling 
History 


9:4s 9:50 S 1 R'^st. 


9:50 io:s IS 1 Slates & Blocks 1 4th Reader 1 Advanced Geo.^. 
10:5 10:20 15 1 Reading | Prmi. Geog. . | -^ 


10:20 1 10:35 1 'S 1 Recess. 


10:3s 10:4s 1° Primer Class 

'^°-4S II. IS Slates & Blocks 


Primary Geog. 


Grammar 
Algebra 


1 1 :iS 1 11:20 1 S Rest. 


;;;- | \lr^^ \ H heading 1 ^l'^,,f^-t|f, 1 Grammar 


12 1 I 1 60 1 NOON. 


I 
1:10 

1 :2o 
1:30 
1:40 


1:10 1 10 

1:20 1 ID 
1:30 1 10 

1 :40 1 10 
i:SS 1 IS 


Primer Class 
1st Reader 

Slid Reader Reading 
3rd Reader 

Slates & Blocks 


Arithmetic 
6tli Reader 


1:55 1 2 1 S 1 Rest. 


2 2:1s IS 1 Blackboard 1 Arfthmptir 1 ^^^ Geog. 
2:1s 2:36 IS 1 Reading 1 Arithmetic | physjoiog-y 


2:30 1 2:4s 1 15 1 Recess. 


2:4s 

3:1s 
3:30 
..3:4s 


3 

3:1s 

3:30 

3:45 
4 


15 Prim Spell'g. 

IS Slates & Blocks Arithmetic 

;S 1 Dismissed | ™j-| 


Adv. Spelling 
U. S. History 

Writing 
Arithmetic 



II. ORGANIZING. 

If the preliminary work detailed in the previous sec- 
tion be attended to, the work of organizing will be ma- 
terially lessened. You should spend but little time or- 
ganizing and getting ready for active work. You 
should commence at once with an explanation of the 
programme. That all may have something to do you 
should assign a lesson for each class, something not very 
difficult but which will occupy their attention a short 
time at least. The time allotted on programme for gen- 
eral exercises will be sufficient for explanation of pro- 
gramme and assigning lessons and then you are read}^ 



38 METHODS OF TEACHING 

to begin the recitations. Have a little book in which to 
enroll the names of the pupils of each class when they 
have taken their places at the recitation seats. By en- 
rolling their names in this way by classes you will the 
sooner become acquainted with the individual pupils, 
and it is not so embarrassing as taking a general enroll- 
ment of the whole school at once. Go strictly accord- 
ing to programme. Do not vary a minute. Commence 
this the first day and continue it until the last. Not ver}- 
much in the way of study need be expected the first 
day and consequently the recitation time can be taken 
up in preliminary drills on the next lesson, in enrolling 
names and in familiar talk about their studies. The 
time on programme denoted "Rest" you can occupy 
the first day in general remarks on your plan of govern- 
ment, the necessity of system and order in the school, 
&c. 

See that every pupil has a slate and pencil. If all 
have not, ask them if they will not try and get the mas 
soon as possible. Attend, also, to the matter of getting 
books. 

If you commence in this way as though you meant 
business and thoroughly understood your business, you 
will create a good impression among your pupils the 
first day and this is a point of great value. As it be- 
comes necessary you may make slight changes in the 
programme but frequent changes should be avoided and 
they may be, if you have well studied the matter before 
hand. I have often heard teachers remark that they 
always dreaded the first and last days of school. In 
regard to the first day if they would prepare themselves 
as I have suggested before coming to the school-house 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 39 

and then commence actual business at once, the first 
day need not be a source of dread. 

Any lengthy speeches or remarks about the former 
school, or boasting of what you expect to accomplish 
are out of place not only the first day, but every other 
day of the school. 

III. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 

As much will be said on this subject in connection 
with the methods of teaching the various branches, a 
few general observations will be all that is necessary 
here. 

The success of a teacher depends in the largest meas- 
ure upon the manner in which he conducts a recitation. 
Remember that it is one thing to hear a class recite and 
another to conduct a recitation properly. Under the 
ancient regime we heard of a Master who kept school 
and heard his scholars recite. Now it is, or should be, 
a Teacher who teaches his pupils. 

The objects of a recitation may be grouped under 
four heads as follows: 

1. Examination. 

2. Instruction. 

3. Cultivation. 

4. Excitation. 

I. It is to be supposed the pupil has studied his les- 
son and the first object is to find out what he knows 
about it. This information is necessary for several rea- 
sons. The teacher must know what the pupil has 
learned in order to assign further lessons and give addi- 
tional instruction. The pupil by rehearsing what he 
has learned fixes it in his memory and cultivates the 



40 METHODS OF TEACHING 

power of expression and receives instruction from his 
fellow pupils. The first thing is the examination of the 
written work previously prepared by the pupils. This 
may be accompanied with instruction, encouragement, 
criticism or censure. Next the teacher should test the 
knowledge of the pupils by calling for reports on topics, 
by questions judiciously put, by written work on black- 
board or slates, by reviews, drills, &c. Questions are 
advantageously used and also abused by teachers. As 
a general thing leading questions or such as suggest the 
answer, should be avoided. If used, they should be 
only for young pupils or for reviews or as an occasional 
concert drill. Questions should be so put as to lead the 
pupil to think and answer them in his own language. 
Pupils should not be called upon in rotation, but promis- 
cuously. This secures better attention and bars the 
possibility of special preparation for special parts of the 
lesson to the neglect of other parts. When called upon 
to report on a topic it is generally best that a pupil rise 
to his feet, especially if the class is large. 

The importance of constant reviewing can not be 
overestimated. A review of the lesson of the previous 
day should be had each day. This need not occupy 
much time as only the leading points of the lesson should 
be reviewed. Not only should each lesson be reviewed, 
but not less than once a week there should be a general 
review of all passed over since the last review, and 
once a month or so there should be a general review 
of the whole subject from the beginning. Review 
lessons may be given occasionally, requiring written 
answers to questions placed on the black-board by the 
teacher. 



JN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 41 

2. It is the office of the teacher to impart additional 
information. Much of this may be done in prehminary 
drills. The teacher should be a treasure house of infor- 
mation on each branch he teaches. He can be this by 
constant study of the lessons previous to the recitations 
and by being a general reader and making notes of 
what he reads. Every teacher should have a blank 
book in which to note down anything and everything 
which may have a possible bearing on the branches he 
expects to teach. There are many points of interest 
which may be learned from newspapers, magazines and 
journals, encyclopedias, works of biography, history and 
travel, and in larger treatises on the same subjects of the 
class books, which should be noted down under the 
proper heads convenient for reference. x\mong these 
points are snch as follows: In Arithmetic, short meth- 
ods of solving examples, curious properties of numbers, 
history and origin of figures, test examples. In Geo- 
graphy, popular names of states, cities and countries, ori- 
gin and meaning of names, historical incidents connected 
with places or countries, remarkable natural curiosities, 
manners and customs of the people, recent political 
changes, and much other matter not found in the text- 
books. In Grammar, disposition of difficult construc- 
tions, outlines, remarks on the history and origin of lan- 
guage, &c. In History, incidents not found in text-books 
popular names and appellations of men, biographical 
sketches, points in the philosophy of histor}^, recent 
events, &c. In Natural Science, any easy experiment, 
or remarkable or interesting fact. In general, the 
teacher should note down anv thought which may 
come to him at odd times, or any observation dropped 



42 METHODS OF TEACHING 

from the lips of others on the methods of teaching, gov- 
erning, or managing a school, or any information ob- 
tained from lectm-es, political speeches or sermons which 
would have a bearing on his school work. Such a book 
will prove in a few years a mine of gold to any teacher. 
Also let him make a scrap-book, and from every news- 
paper he can get hold of cull fragments of value, and 
paste them in it. It is remarkable what may be done 
in a few years in this way. I have a scrap-book which 
no money would buy and it has not cost me one cent of 
outlay. I have fragments which I have been gathering 
for ten years and now it is a volume of history, biogra- 
phy, poetry, literature, science and art. It is my plan 
to cut out of every paper which I can get hold of, 
whether it is one I subscribe for or a stray copy given 
me, or one which has been wrapped around goods, or 
one picked up in the street; I cut out I say everything 
useful or interesting and then sort them over and put in 
scrap-book those of most value, classifying them under 
the proper heads. 

But the teacher must not be a lecturer. He may talk 
too much. It is not the amount of information given, 
but the amount imbibed which counts. Give a little at 
each recitation and let no recitation pass without a little, 
but avoid prolixity. 

He should be ready in the use of familiar illustrations 
and should cultivate the power of explanation. To do 
this he must study his lesson before coming to the class. 
Prof. Alfred Holbrook used to say there were three 
grades of teaching power; ist and lowest, the power to 
make the brightest pupils understand; 2nd, the power 
tojuake the majority of the class understand, and 3rd, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 43 

and highest power was to make the dullest pupil in the 
class understand. Study, teacher, to attain to this high- 
est grade of teaching power. 

The teacher will also instruct the pupil how to study 
a lesson and carefully direct his studies. This should 
be done at the close of a recitation as a preliminary drill 
for the next lesson, 

3. The teacher should seek by the recitation to cul- 
tivate accurate and fluent expression in writing and 
speaking. The pupils have prepared written work at 
their seats. By careful examination and just criticism 
the teacher can aid the pupil to cultivate his power 
of expressing himself in writing. Spelling, Capitals, 
Punctuation, Syntax, Arrangement, Method, Neatness, 
&c., should be carefully noted. In speaking, also, the 
pupil should be cultivated in throwing off embarrass- 
ment, and in the use of good language. 

He should seek to cultivate in his pupils habits of at- 
tention. Much may be done in this respect by mutual 
criticisms. Care should be taken, however, that it is not 
overdone. Ill feeling is sometimes the result of pupils 
criticising each other, and among small pupils much 
confusion in the class results unless it is carefully con- 
trolled by the teacher. A good plan to cultivate atten- 
tion is to call frequentty for a report or repetition of some 
explanation or information given by teacher or any of 
the pupils. For example, the teacher imparts to-day 
some information not cjiven in the text-book, and to-mor- 
row calls for a repetition of it from the class. This is 
an excellent exercise. 

4. Under the head of Excitation, (I beg pardon for 
using an unfamiliar word, but I could find no other which 



44 METHODS OF TEACHING 

would SO well express my meaning), I wish to speak of 
the teacher's duty to arouse an interest in study, excite 
a love for study and lead the pupil into channels of in- 
dependent thought and investigation. 

He must arouse an interest and excite a love for study 
by a careful attention to the previous points in this 
section. In addition, the teacher should be full of en- 
thusiasm. The pupils will imbibe this feeling in a meas- 
ure from the teacher. They will not likely be interested 
in their work unless the teacher is interested in his work. 
This holy enthusiasm is one of the main points of dis- 
tinguishing a true and good teacher from a dull and 
lifeless and inferior teacher. 

He should lead his pupils into new pastures of inde- 
pendent thought and original investigation by judicious 
questions and directions, and by assigning appropriate 
topics. Timid and slow pupils should be encouraged by 
kind words and favorable comments. 

IV. GOVERNMENT. 

Volumes have been written on this topic alone. I 
propose to make a very short treatise answer my pur- 
pose. If a teacher teach well he will have but little 
governing to do. The tap root of a system of govern- 
ment in school is to furnish all with emplo3aTient that is 
interesting to them and at the same time conducive to 
their highest mental and moral development. To keep 
the imps of mischief away, put the angel of business on 
guard. This is the Pestalozzian idea. Hear what this 
great pioneer of education had to say on this subject: 
" If from the imperfection of his reasoning powers, or 
his want of knowledge of facts, the child is not able to 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 45 

enter into the sense or follow the chain of ideas ; if he is 
made to repeat what to him is sound without sense, it is 
not strange that he becomes restless and disobedient." 
The great mistake of too many teachers is that they 
■expect too much of children. They proceed too much 
on the presumption that a child has the mind of a man 
and will be interested in abstract subjects. You must 
not only furnish him something to do, but it must be 
something he can do and will like to do. Then he will 
have business and will have no time nor inclination for 
mischief. Nothing is naturall}^ more active than the 
human mind, and especially the mind of a child. It 
craves and seeks after knowledge. If not properly 
directed it seeks after the bad as well as after the good, 
and we are most of us inclined to think that it is more 
apt to seek after the bad. Place a child in a church 
during a sermon and watch his actions, and by recalling 
our own experience when a child we can easily imagine 
his thoughts. He is not interested in the sermon because 
he can not understand it. He soon grows tired seeing 
the people and he shifts his position a hundred times, 
counts the panes of glass in the windows, looks at the 
ceiling and out the window and tries every possible 
way to interest himself except to get into downright 
mischief, which he longs to do, and w^ould do, were it 
not for parental restraint or the awe of the place and 
the restraint of the people around him. A child goes 
to school and is placed on a seat with others of like 
dispositions and like restless minds. There is not the 
awe of a church nor dread of parents' frown nor 
dignit}^ of numerous older heads to restrain him. He is 
assigned a lesson which in great part may as well be 



46 METHODS OF TEACHING 

for all he can understand of it, a portion of Homer's 
Illiad in the original Greek. Can you expect anything 
else than mischief from the child, especially if he has 
an active mind? There are some children so dull and 
stupid that they never give the teacher any trouble, and 
when grown up will never agitate the world. It is from 
the child which, if not furnished with employment, would 
fall into mischief that the world must expect its " coming- 
man." 

Remember then, teacher, that here is where you must 
begin to lay your foundation of government. This is 
the solid rock on which you must build. If you succeed 
perfectly in this you will have but little else to do. 
With a large school you can not succeed perfectly in 
keeping all employed, but you should do all you can 
toward this end. 

The teacher should teach pupils to govern themselves, 
and only when his best endeavors to this end fail should 
he resort to coercive measures. Were children pro- 
perly trained from infancy up there w^ould never be any 
need of force in governing them. But the teacher has 
not had the charge of these children from infancy, and 
in nine cases out of ten if he had had them in charge he 
would have failed to train them properly. Consequently, 
considering the frailties of human nature, force some- 
times becomes a necessity in the managing of youth. 

A Republican or Democratic form of government is 
undoubtedly the best for Nations or communities, and, 
to a certain extent, it is best in the school-room; but 
there must be a slight savoring of despotism. The 
teacher should be, to some extent, the autocrat of the 
school-room. He should endeavor to lay before the 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 4:7 

scliool a few fundamental principles of government, and 
as far as possible, secure the voice of the majority in 
enacting and enforcing requirements. But there may 
be cases where it is necessary for the teacher to use his 
own mind without appealing to the pupils for sanction. 
He should explain to them at the first that as all came 
there to be instructed, it is to the highest interest of all 
that the teacher's whole time should be spent in teaching, 
and that if every one would attend only to the work 
necessary to acquire knowledge, there would be no 
necessity for government. 

The teacher, while he does not make a show of 
watching his pupils, should ever be on the alert to detect 
departures from propriety and at once check them. A 
firm stand at the beginning is of great importance. One 
evil act if permitted to pass unnoticed will be followed 
by a score. A rather rigid discipline at first will pre- 
vent the necessity of close watching afterward. 

The teacher need say but little about government. 
A system of rules laid down is of more harm than good. 
The general principle, Do Right is all the rule necessary. 
Let the teacher be orderly and systematic in everything 
he undertakes and he will thus unconsciously teach order 
and system to his pupils. 

Do not attempt to keep a school as still as a church is 
when the minister is praying. The performance of the 
actual duties of the school-room, if carried on in an 
enthusiastic manner, can not be without more or less 
noise. But you should endeavor to check unnecessary 
noise. Do not expect too much of the pupils. Consider 
that forty pupils will make more noise than twenty,, and 
if any one points you to a quiet school, ask how many 



48 METHODS OF TEACHING 

pupils there are. I have seen teachers who kept forty 
and fifty pupils almost as still as death, but I never saw 
very much real progress made in studies under such 
teachers. They were a success so far as keeping a 
school quiet was concerned, and that was all. Shall 
whispering be suppressed? Yes, and no. If it is injur- 
ing the school, suppress as far as you can. Some claim 
they can suppress it entirely, but I do not believe it. It 
is one of the impossibilities, especially if you do any 
teaching at the same time. If a school is small and pu- 
pils study and recite well, I can not see what harm there 
can be in whispering a little. If a pupil has plenty of 
work to do he will not spend much time in whispering. 
If a school is large and the pupils crowded, a great deal 
of confusion will result if each pupil only whispers a 
little. In such cases the teacher will explain the neces- 
sity of refraining from whispering and do all in his power 
to check it. He may find it necessary to deprive those 
who persist in this practice of a part of their recesses. 
With many merely calling their attention to the fact will 
be all that is necessary. With some it will have a good 
effect to write their names on the black-board. All this 
should be done not so much as a punishment, but as a 
reminder of the fact that they are disturbing the school, 
and the teacher should so explain.- Extreme cases may 
require extreme remedies, and I leave the teacher to 
devise his own mode of punishment. 

As was said in the beginning of this section, if all are 
employed very little in the way of government will be 
necessary. It behooves the teacher, therefore, to devise 
ways and means to keep all from the largest to the 
smallest employed profitably and pleasurably. He who 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 49 

succeeds best in this will succeed best in governing his 
school. Let me make a few suggestions in this matter. 
With large pupils the question of employment will not 
be a difficult one. Provide plenty of written work in 
each of the branches they pursue and by properly con- 
ducted recitations and judicious assignment of lessons, 
all the older pupils will be kept properly employed. If 
any wide-awake, active boys or girls are well up with 
their lessons it will not be improper to allow them to 
read some book or paper in school hours. Many a 
mischievously inclined boy may be diverted from the 
mischief he would fall into, by simply requesting him to 
bring an armful of wood, a bucket of coal, or a pail of 
water. Some pupils are naturally so full of life, that 
unless they are employed constantly, they will naturally 
fall into mischief. Such children are sometimes the 
brightest in the school. Their surplus energies need 
only to be directed in the right channel. Like the loco- 
motive, they are a power for good so long as kept on 
the track, but let them get off the track, and they are a 
power for mischief. Such pupils may be requested to 
write their spelling or reading lessons, or place the solu- 
tion of an example on the blackboard. I do not like to 
see a child who has not enough energy about him to get 
into mischief. The teacher will be ever on the watch 
for something useful to act as a safety valve for such 
vivacious pupils. There is a point worth thinking of 
right here, teachers, a lead, which if followed, will yield 
rich results in the way of managing such pupils. (See 
pp. 45 and 46). 

No pupil, old or young, should come to school with- 
out a slate. The teacher should attend to this matter, 
4 



50 METHODS OF TEACHING 

and if he cannot induce parents to purchase slates, it will 
pay him in the way of securing order in the school-room, 
to buy them, and loan them to the pupils, A little talk 
with the parents in regard to the matter, will, however, 
usually secure them. There is no one thing that will aid 
so much in keeping pupils occupied as slates. The read- 
ing and spelhng classes will find them a necessity in writ- 
ing or printing their spelling lists, and very young pupils,, 
in drawing, printing letters, and making figures. The 
teacher should keep the young pupils busy with slates 
and blocks. Simple drawing lessons should be placed 
on the blackboard, such as any teacher can draw, wheth- 
er he has ever studied drawing or not, as squares, tri- 
angles, rectangles, parallel lines, stars, boxes, the simple 
outline of a house, a barrel, a cup, &c. Blocks are an- 
other means of government. Let the teacher go to some 
mechanic's shop, and if he has ordinary ingenuity, he can, 
out of a few pieces of pine board, make a set of blocks 
which can be used by both small and large pupils; by 
small pupils to play with, and by large ones to repre- 
sent square and cube root, mensuration of solids, &c. 
Let him make a cube, to illustrate cube root, a pyramid, 
a triangular prism, a parallelopiped, a C3dinder, a cone, 
&c. Also, a number of blocks in the shape and propor- 
tion of bricks, but they need not be more than three 
inches in length. If the teacher cannot make these him- 
self, it will cost but a trifle to get a mechanic to make 
them. Very young pupils can be kept emplo3'^ed for 
hours in building houses, &c., with these blocks. To 
prevent making noise, by the falhng of the blocks on the 
desk, I have sometimes spread a shawl or a couple of 
newspapers over the desk. Blocks with the alphabet 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 51 

can be purchased for a small sum, and will be very con- 
venient and useful. 

During v^arm weather the very young pupils should 
be allowed to play out of doors after they have recited 
their lessons and practiced for a few minutes with slates, 
but in winter this can not be, and some means must be 
used to keep them employed. They may be allowed 
to draw and print on the black-board as an occasional 
exercise for a change. Children are generally fond of 
marking with chalk. Every school-house should be 
provided with plenty of black-board. (See p. 60). 

Pupils get tired sitting still and thus grow restless. 
For this reason I have provided in the programme inter- 
vals of five minutes which I have denominated '■'■ RestP 
Rest is not necessarily absolute cessation from activity. 
Rest is only change. These intervals may be used in 
various ways. To check whispering I have given these 
five-minute intervals for that purpose, allowing the 
pupils to move about the room but not permitting them 
to leave it nor to indulge in boisterous play, but that 
they may stretch their limbs and have a few minutes for 
conversation. These intervals may be used in giving 
calisthenic exercises, if thought proper, or the teacher 
may give oral drills to the whole school on some subject 
of natural science, or read or relate a story, or sometimes 
it is necessary to talk to the whole school on some mat- 
ter pertaining to government, or about something that 
has occurred in school. I would not have any set pro- 
gramme for these intervals, but occupy them sometimes 
in one way and sometimes in another. Variety is the 
spice of life and we cannot get along without it. If a 
visitor enters your school do not interrupt the usual 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING 

course of your work but adhere strictly to the program- 
me, and when the time for " Rest " comes then you may 
ask him to talk to your school or spend the five minutes 
in talking to him. 

The five minutes in the morning denominated " Gen- 
eral Exercise," may be also used in various ways. 
Exercises may be given which will go far towards 
securing punctual attendance. Read a portion of some 
interesting story each morning, always leaving oiF in an 
interesting place, or give short lectures on some scien- 
tific subject, or the time may be devoted to matters of 
business as announcing special lessons, arranging pupils 
seats or providing for a new pupil. 

A strict attention to these seemingly small matters 
will go far towards securing good order in school. 

Very small pupils should not spend the whole day in 
school, but as this is a matter to be settled between the 
teacher and parents, I can only ask the teacher to try 
and make such arrangements with parents so that the 
small pupils can be dismissed an hour or two before the 
rest. Some parents will even object to allowing small 
pupils to play out of doors during school hours, but if 
this matter is explained by the teacher no trouble will 
ensue, and if they are consulted in reference to sending, 
small pupils home the matter can generally be arranged. 
The only objection to this is in the fact that some child- 
ren have a long way to go to school, and very small 
children need the company and protection of their older 
brothers and sisters. 

There is no sense nor propriety in keeping small 
children a whole day in school. It is imposing too 
much upon the teacher of an ungraded school. He is 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 53 

obliged to teach everything from the Alphabet to Alge- 
bra and manage all ages from five years old to twenty, 
and I do not see the need of keeping the little ones con- 
lined several hours longer than is necessary for their 
instruction. Therefore, every teacher should try to 
make such arrangements with school boards and parents 
as will remedy this matter. 

To recapitulate the matter of government: 

1. Let the teacher teach well. 

2. Let him set an example of order and system by 
being orderly and systematic himself. 

3. Let him provide means to keep all profitably and 
pleasantly employed. 

4. Let him secure the aid of parents and school 
boards and work in harmony with them. 

5. Let him be calm, watchful and firm. 

I can not forbear closing this chapter with an extract 
from Herbert Spencer : " The independent English boy 
is father of the independent English man ; and you can- 
not have the last without the first. German teachers 
say, that they had rather manage a dozen German boys 
than one English one. Shall we, therefore, wish that 
our boys had the manageableness of the German ones, 
and with it the submissiveness and political serfdom of 
adult Germans? Or, shall we not rather tolerate in our 
boys those feelings which make them free men, and 
modify our methods accordingly?" What Spencer says 
of the English boy can only be more emphatically said 
of the American boy. That independent spirit which 
will not take oft the hat to a Prince sooner than to a 
beggar, requires a different kind of government from 
that, necessary for that cringing, servile submissiveness 



54 METHODS OF TEACHING 

which characterizes too many of the Old World inhabi- 
tants. 

As self-government prevails in our Nation, so it 
should prevail in the family and school. If properly 
taught here it will be easy there, and we need not fear 
a downfall of our Republic so long as the principles on 
which it is based are taught in the family and school. 
If it is high-minded men who constitute a state, it is the 
teacher's duty to make high-minded men out of the boys 
under his control, and thus be the greatest benefactor 
of the race. Ruskin told his country-men to set their 
minds upon multiplying Englishmen. Let us set our 
minds upon multiplying Americans. The teacher of 
the country school is one of the greatest factors in this 
work. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE SCHOOL HOUSE. 

I. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 

Not one-half enough money is expended in the con- 
struction of school-houses, and much that is expended is 
misdirected and the result is that in a land of wealth 
where costly residences, fine court-houses and peniten- 
tiaries, and elegant churches abound the great majority 
•of the school buildings are miserable shanties, barely 
sufficient to shelter the inmates from the weather, with- 
out yards or trees, or anything which makes a home 
desirable. The school-house is not exactly a home, but 
it should be just as attractive a place. Our cities, as a 
rule, it is true, contain fine school-houses and there are, 
also, some very neat, well-arranged and attractive 
school-houses in the country, but it is the exception 
rather than the rule. Four bare walls of wood, stone 
•or brick, with desks and table for the teacher, a rusty 
stove and rustier walls with a greasy black-board about 

(ss) 



56 METHODS OF TEACHING 

three by four feet in dimensions, will pretty accurately 
describe the inside of the majority of country school- 
houses, at least, those in the Central and Western 
States. 

Our free school system is a grand and glorious thing, 
and much money is spent for the sustenance of schools; 
yet when we consider the money spent for useless pur- 
poses it is but a trifle. The annual expenditure in the 
United States for sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and 
apparatus is only a little over ten million dollars. Com- 
pare this with the cost of punishing crime, or with the 
amount annually expended for liquors and tobacco. 
The people can be taxed to no better purpose, certainly, 
than that of educating their children. It is a fact that 
as education of the masses increases, crime and its con- 
sequences decreases; consequentl}^ it is a good invest- 
ment, for it is a saving to the country to the amount 
necessary to punish crime as well as the loss of property 
consequent upon crime. It is also true that the more 
money expended by the State for the purpose of main- 
taining schools the fewer illiterate persons there are. 
The following statistics, compiled from official sources, 
will show this: 

Iowa, for every one of her population expends $3.60, 
and one out of every 49 of her population over ten years 
of age can not read. 

Tennessee, for every one of her population expends 55 
cents, and one out of every four of her population over 
ten years of age can not read. It may be objected that 
as Tennessee has a large Negro population, the com- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 57 

parison is unfair. Take, then, the State of New Jersey 
instead. 

New Jersey, for every one of her population expends 
$2.37, and one out of every 27 of her population over 
ten years of age can not read. 

Thus you may figure up the statistics of any State 
and find that the more money expended for schools the 
less ignorance among the people. 

It frequently happens that a sufficient sum of money 
is appropriated for buildings and .apparatus but so mis- 
directed that it fails to answer any good purpose. 

Practical teachers are rarely consulted when a country 
school-house is to be built. I have seen some very costly 
buildings that were miserable failures as school-houses. 
One third less money would have built better houses 
for the purpose, if it had been properly applied. For 
example, I have one in mind just now which cost a large 
sum of money. There were two small ante-rooms, so 
arranged that they were of little practical use, and to con- 
ceal the want of symmetry, caused by thus arranging the 
rooms, a blind window was made between the entries to 
them. A belfry costing a large sum, and made more 
for ornament, though not very ornamental, than for use, 
was placed on the top. An attempt was made to con- 
struct a blackboard in the wall, but it was a failure, from 
want of a little knowledge, and consequently, was never 
used for that purpose. 

It is the dut}^ of teachers, at the risk even of being 
thought meddlesome, to instruct school boards when 



58 METHODS OF TEACHING 

new houses are to be built, and see that what money is 
expended is lised to the best purpose. But how can 
teachers instruct others unless they are themselves in- 
structed in this matter? The question of school archi- 
tecture is one of great importance, and not enough atten- 
tion is paid to it by teachers. In the first place, then, 
teacher, urge a sufficient expenditure, and then see that 
it is properly applied. 

I give here a few suggestions as to how I think coun- 
try school-houses should be constructed: 

1. Location. As the distance to be traversed by the 
pupils must be taken into consideration, not a very wide 
latitude of choice is allowable in this respect, but when 
possible, a high ground should be chosen, near a natural 
forest, and far enough away from the public highway to 
be free from the noise, dust and danger of passing ve- 
hicles. How often do we see these points disregarded. 
Country school-houses are often " stuck in a mud hole " 
and so close to the road side that passing vehicles may 
rub against their sides. 

2. Surroundings. Land is not excessively dear in 
this country and there can be no excuse for not having 
ample grounds in connection with the school-house. 
There should not in the Western States be less than two 
acres. In the older States where land is now higher, 
perhaps a less space may be all that can be expected. 
The ground should be enclosed with a neat fence, and 
if not naturally furnished with trees the more hardy 
kinds of forest trees should be planted, not in straight 
rows but in groups as they grow naturally, leaving a 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 59 

large space at a sufficient distance from the house, for a 
play-ground for ball and such games as require open 
ground. All out buildings should be at the back of the 
school-house some distance and screened by trees. I 
will say nothing of laying off flower beds and planting 
shrubbery, though intensely desirable, as I fear we are 
not quite sufficiently civilized for that, especially in the 
West. 

3. Size. There is little danger of getting a school- 
house too large. I have yet to meet with a country 
school-house too large for the number of pupils. Here 
comes in the matter of expense, and here is where 
teachers must fight the parsimony that will crowd a 
number of. children together like cattle in a pen. 

A school-house to accommodate 60 pupils should not 
be less than 32 by 40 feet in dime-nsions and include a 
hall and two ante-rooms. This will give ample room 
for desks, recitation seats, platform and aisles, and desks 
need not be placed too close to the stove. The ceiling 
should be at least 10 feet high. For a smaller school 
the building need not be quite so large, perhaps in some 
districts not more than 26 by 34 feet. 

4. Plan. I submit the following plan for a country 
school-house, which is calculated to seat sixty-two pupils, 
and give all ample accommodations, hoping it will, at 
at least, prove suggestive. For convenience in study- 
ing Geography as well as for other reasons the pupils 
should be seated facing the north, the door entering at 
the south and the north a dead wall, windows being on 
the east and west sides: 



60 



METHODS OF TEACHING 

N 



1 I 9 I 



5- 



5- 



5- 





















II 


II 






















\\ 



l4l 



So 



-5 




JjJ 



1. Outside Door. 

2. Inside Door. 

3. Door to Clothes Room. 

4. Door to Teacher's Room, 
j. Windows. 

6. Platform :o inches. 



-5 



Teacher's Desk. 
Stove. 

Recitation Seats. 
Blackboards. 
Desks for 6z Pupils. 
Movable Seats. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 61 

The small room on the right of the hall can be used 
for hanging clothes, keeping dinner baskets, a small 
supply of fuel, kindlings, &c. The room on the left I 
have denominated the teacher's room, but may be used 
for a variety of purposes. A school library may be 
kept here, also all apparatus v^hen not in use, and if oc- 
casion requires it may be used as a recitation room. 
The stove, it will be observed, is far enough from any 
pupil's desk and opposite and near to the door, the ad- 
vantage of vv^hich will be seen when we come to speak 
of ventilation. A large black-board can be made the 
full width of the room at the north end and facing the 
school, while smaller black-boards can be made between 
the windows. The windows are all at the sides, an ar- 
rangement better suited to the eyes of the pupils than.if 
facing them. They should be made high so that the 
light will shine rather down on the pupils. The aisles 
should be two feet or more in width. 

Such a building will cost a little more than such as 
are usually built, but when once built will last just as 
long as a more contracted structure and will certainly 
pay in an educational sense. 

5. Construction and Material. School-houses may 
be made of wood, stone, brick or concrete, but of what- 
ever material, they should be well constructed and the 
material should be of the best quality of the kind. No 
bungling workmen should have the contract for build- 
ing. 

The great objection to large rooms with high ceilings 
is that they are inclined to echo and increase sounds. 
This may be obviated in a great measure by so con- 
structing the floor as to deaden the sound. Architects 



62 METHODS OF TEACHING 

can accomplish this and it should be a part of the 
specifications. 

Floors should be made of hard wood, the boards 
being narrow and well joined so as not to warp. The 
room should be ceiled with boards to a height of 
three or four feet all around. The windows should 
have shutters on the outside. 

Black-boards should be made in the wall. Per- 
haps the best is made by mixing lampblack and flour 
of emery with plaster of Paris and put on as the last 
coat of plastering, the same as a hard finish. 

It would lessen the expense somewhat by setting 
the roof down lower and making the ceiling arched 
or higher in the middle than at the sides. Thus at a 
less expense for material would be gained the same 
or greater amount of space. 

II. APPARATUS. 

Many school-houses in this country have not one 
piece of apparatus, not even a wall map. This is a 
deplorable state of affairs, and I hope it will not al- 
ways be thus. ISTow, I am not going to advocate the 
purchasing of costly apparatus. There is no need of 
it; but there are a few articles which no school board 
should neglect to furnish. Among these are a good 
set of wall maps, a small globe, an unabridged dic- 
tionary, and charts for teaching penmanship and pri- 
mary reading. Besides these there might be an en- 
cyclopedia of general information, a tellurian to illus- 
trate mathematical geography, a set of mathematical 
blocks, set of alphabet blocks, a numeral frame, a 
number of small rulers with scale of inches marked, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 63 

and a yard stick. Some of these may be easily made 
by the teacher. 

According to Webster's definition of apparatus, viz : 
"Things provided as means to some end," it will not 
be improper to include a library as among the appa- 
ratus of a school. I have already mentioned two 
works of reference, but there are many books not 
only valuable for reference but for the use of the 
children and youth of our country schools. It seems 
to me that with a school-house as I. have here de- 
scribed, a library should be started. I hope that the 
day is not far distant when each country school-house 
will be constructed on some similar plan to the one 
described, and in the teacher's room there will be a 
book case well filled with reading matter and works 
of reference suitable to the young and for the benefit 
of the teacher. Such a library can be kept under 
lock and key and the teacher constituted a librarian, 
books only to be had during session of the school. 
The legislature of Ohio once voted a school library 
to be kept in each district, and the books to be ex- 
changed periodically. It was only a few years until 
the books were scattered and most of them lost, and 
finally what was left were gathered up and sold. It 
does seem to me that such a state of affairs does not 
argue a very highly civilized state of society. If men 
took that interest in the education of their children 
which they should take, such would not be the case. 
IS'ow, I do think that if each district would furnish its 
own library, and school boards w^ould see to it that 
teachers did their duty as librarians (and if teachers 
were alive to their work they would need but little 



64 METHODS OF TEACHING 

watcliing), a great revolution in the state of society 
might he accomplished in a few years. Certain books, 
such as are not used for reference, might be ex- 
changed from one district to another at certain inter- 
vals, thus keeping up new interest. The school- 
house should be the literary center of the rural com- 
munity. These libraries would be excellent helps to 
literary societies which could be held at the school- 
house during winter evenings. 

Public exhibitions, festivals, etc., might be given, 
and the proceeds devoted to purchasing a library for 
the school. Other apparatus might be procured in a 
similar manner. 

III. VENTILATION. 

I shall not occupy space in speaking of the evils of 
badly ventilated rooms. Every person of intelligence 
knows the advantages of ventilation. 

A room is well ventilated when there is a free ac- 
cess of fresh air and a free exit for the foul air, and 
when no one is exposed to cold draughts. The bad 
effects from draughts are even greater evils than 
breathing impure air. The majority, in fact nearly 
all, country school-houses are so constructed that they 
can not be ventilated without exposing pupils to cold 
draughts of air. If a windo\v is raised at the bottom 
the cold air rushes in and strikes those sitting near 
it, and if it is lowered from the top the cold air falls 
down on the heads of the inmates. 

Air that has been inhaled by the lungs contains 
carbonic acid gas, as Avell as organic matters resulting 
from the waste of animal tissue. This carbonic acid 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 65 

18 heavier than common air when cold, but when 
warmed it is lighter than common cool air. The con- 
sequence IS that when exhaled from the lungs it rises, 
but gradually descends as it becomes cooled If an 
opening is made near the top of the room it will pass 
•out readily, provided there is a sufficient opening at 
the bottom to admit a corresponding amount of fresh 
air. If there is no admission of cool air from below 
and an opening made at the top there will be two 
currents established side by side, one of cold air com- 
ing in and the other of warm, foul air passing out. 
The cold air will fall down to the bottom of the room 
and force the warmer air up. An interesting experi- 
ment may be performed by the teacher to illustrate 
this principle of ventilation. When a room which 
contains a fire has been closed for some time, let the 
door be opened for the space of an inch or more and 
hold a lighted candle opposite the crack. If it is 
held near the top the flame will be blown outward; 
if near the bottom it will be blown inward, and if 
near the middle it will remain steady, showing plainly 
the direction of the currents of air. 

As a simple and eifective means of ventilating a 
school-room, I would recommend the following: 
Make a wooden spout, say six inches or more in 
diameter, to pass from beneath the stove to the out- 
side of the building, under the floor. An opening is 
to be made in the floor under the stove. At the end 
of the room farthest from the stove make a similar 
spout to extend from the floor to the roof, with open- 
ings at the top and bottom and in the middle, with 
5 



66 METHODS OF TEACHING 

slides to shut when necessary. ]!iTow, when a fire is 
made the air around the stove becomes heated, and 
rising, circulates through the room and passes out at 
the openings in the upright spout. A fresh supply 
of cold air is drawn through the tube under the floor 
and in turn becomes heated and circulates through 
the room. The windows and doors ma}^ be shut per- 
fectly tight, and yet there will be good ventilation. 

Heat is conducted from a stove through a room in 
two ways — by convection and by radiation. By the 
former is meant that the air in immediate contact 
with the stove becomes heated, and rising, its place is 
supplied by cool air, which goes through the same 
process. By radiation is meant that heat is thrown 
ofl' from the stove in direct rays, the same as light 
from a lamp. 'To prevent this heating b}^ radiation 
some device must be applied, because those sitting 
near the stove get too warm, while those at a distance 
may suiter with cold. A piece of sheet-iron or tin 
should be placed so as to surround the stove on all 
sides, except top and bottom, at the distance of four 
or five inches. The stove should always stand near 
the door of the room to receive the cool air when the 
door is opened. A room ventilated and warmed as 
above described will not be an unhealthful place for 
human beings. 

But what are you going to do, teacher, if you are 
obliged to teach in a room not properly ventilated? 
Rather than open a window and expose some pupil 
to a draught, which will be the case in most houses, 
open doors and windows wide at each recess and 
noon and allow a thorough change of air. When 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 67 

pupils are in motion the draughts will not hurt them. 
Or a window may be opened and the opening screened 
by a board so as to prevent a direct draught. If the 
stove is near the door, as it should be, open the door 
a little way to admit air, provided the pupils are not 
so seated that the air will strike them. 

An attention to these matters will often prevent 
cases of colds which might result in disease producing 
death. A close, ill-ventilated room will also make 
restless pupils, and government will be more difficult 
in such a room. The teacher is responsible in great 
measure for the health and comfort of his pupils. 



PART II— METHODS OF TEACHING. 

CHAPTER I. 

READING. 

To be a good reader is a most desirable accomplish- 
ment. As reading is taught in our ungraded schools 
we can not saj^it is a success. The hesitation and 
drawl of too many school boys and the sing-song 
tone of, alas, too many ministers are simply abomin- 
able. Yet much time is spent in all our schools in the 
acquisition of this art. The results should be more 
satisfactory. 

To make a good reader it requires, first, a knowl- 
edge of the principles of elocution ; second, m.uch 
practice. 

In order to teach the principles of elocution, the 
teacher himself should have a knowledge of them. 
Too many teachers are wofully deficient in this re- 
spect. It must be remembered that a strict observ- 
ance of the rules for articulation, inflection, accent 
and emphasis, pitch, gesture, etc., will not make a good 
reader or speaker. He should enter into the spirit 
and meaning of the author. He must understand 
and feel what he reads or speaks. The rules of elo- 
cution have many exceptions ; so much so that they 

(68) 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 69 

seem arbitrary. The best orators are children and 
Indians, because they speak the language of nature, 
and are not drilled into artificial modes of expression 
by unnatural customs. 

The teacher should endeavor to improve himself in 
this noble art. He should practice much, reading 
iiloud and declaiming, at the same time studying the 
principles of elocution, as found in our School Read- 
ers. He should first try to find out his own faults 
and set himself to remedy them. If he finds he does 
not articulate well, he should practice on this branch 
until he has improved his enunciation. In the same 
manner let him correct, by drilling himself, any other 
faults of expression he may possess. Let the country 
teacher, after his pupils have gone home in the even- 
ing, read and declaim to the empty seats for half an 
hour each day the lessons in the Readers. The time 
thus spent will repay him many fold. It will elevate 
him not only among teachers, but among all classes. 

It is expected of a teacher, above all others, that 
he should possess the art of expressing himself. The 
American people are a nation of readers, but there 
are comparatively few good readers among them. It 
is true that a republic is the best calculated to develop 
oratory, and we have many of the greatest orators in 
the world, yet we should have more of them and more 
who should be above mediocrity in this respect. It 
is the duty of the country teacher to manufacture 
many of the future orators of America. Let him fit 
himself by careful study and constant drill for this 
purpose. 

Now that the country teacher is obliged to teach 



70 METHODS OF TEACHING 

everything from A B C to Algebra, it is not to be 
supposed he will have the time to devote to the sub- 
ject of reading which the teacher of a graded school 
can have, but what time he has should be economized 
and profitably used. The time devoted to each class, 
of course, will vary with the number of branches 
taught in the school, the number of pupils, and, per- 
haps, with other circumstances. For example, in 
some schools, will be found Algebra, Physiology, 
History, and, perhaps, two grades each of Grammar 
and Geography, while in other schools there may be 
neither of the first three, and only one class each in 
the two latter. The time, therefore, must vary with 
circumstances. (See p. 35.) 

Teaching Beginners to Read. 

There are various methods in vogue for teaching 
beginners to read. Each one has its advocates, who 
strenuously hold to their particular methods, just as 
the different schools of medicine or the different de- 
nominations of religious believers hold to their re- 
spective dogmas. ITow, I do not wish to be behind 
the times, and advise my readers to follow a method 
which the present age has voted down, but I will say 
that I have some serious objections to following excln- 
si vely any method which has yet been invented. There 
are some methods, as the various phonic methods, 
which in theory seem to be jast the thing, and the en- 
thusiastic young teacher will likely be carried away 
by the specious arguments used in their favor by some 
of our educators, who, having watched them in the 
quiet of their study rooms, and never having given 



IN COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 71 

them a practical test in the school-room, are prepared 
to denounce any one as an old fogy or an ignoramus 
who will not at once fall in love with them. I will 
say here that I have personal knowledge of at least 
one prominent educator who is an ardent advocate of 
what he calls the phonetic or normal method, and 
who has never taught a class of children in his life. 

The diiierent methods may be enumerated as fol- 
lows : The Alphabetic Method, the Word or Webb 
Method, the Phonic Method. Of the latter there are 
several varieties. 

The Alphabetic Method is the one by which the most 
of us perhaps were taught and the one which is in use 
in the greater number of country schools to-day. It 
needs no explanation, being simply the teaching of 
the names of the letters of the alphabet and the com- 
bining of them into words. The objection made to it 
is that it teaches the names of the letters only and 
not their powers and sounds, and that it is synthetic 
rather than analytic. 

The Word or Webb Method has many advocates. By 
this method the learner is taught first a number of 
words as wholes. Objects or pictures of objects are 
shown to the pupils and they are taught to call the 
words which represent them at sight. "Words are com- 
bined in sentences and the child is thus taught to read 
before he knows a single letter. The letters are then, 
it is claimed, learned very readily by separating the 
words into their component letters. The advantages 
claimed for this method over the former are that it is 
analytic rather than sjaithetic, and that it can be 
made much more interesting to children, words rep- 



72 METHODS OF TEACHING 

resenting ideas being more easily grasped as wholes 
than letters, which are but arbitrary signs. 

The Phonic Method claims superiority over the oth- 
ers from the fact that as our alphabet contains only 
twenty-six letters to represent about forty sounds, by 
teaching the sounds of the letters rather than their 
names, the many difficulties of pronouncing our lan- 
guage are obviated. As before stated there are sev- 
eral varieties of the Phonic Method. Some have tried 
to overcome the difficulties by having the sounds of 
the letters indicated by marks over or under them, as 
they are in the dictionary. Others have the primers 
printed representing the different sounds by different 
styles of type, and others still by using different char- 
acters for each sound. 

It will be useless to discuss here these different meth- 
ods. I have only briefly described them that the teacher 
may not be ignorant of them, and will say that if cir- 
cumstances permit it will be well for the teacher to try 
the new methods and thus be able to decide for him- 
self. I will only here state a few facts concerning the 
matter of teaching beginners in country schools, and 
then describe the method I have used with the great- 
est success. 

1. A great many children learn the alphabet, and 
some to spell a little, before they are sent to school. 

2. The country teacher will find in many schools 
only one, or at most only two or three pupils, who 
can not read quite well in the First Reader. 

3. Children love to put things together, to build 
up, as well as they love to take things apart or tear 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 73 

down. Both synthesis and analysis should be used 
in teaching. 

4. Children learn almost unconsciously the sounds 
of the letters by naming the letters in familiar words 
and hearing the words pronounced. Thus rarely a 
child needs be told twice that c-a-t spells cat, although 
the sounds of the letters, as heard in the word, are 
not the same as the names of the letters. The con- 
verse is true that even advanced pupils will hesitate 
about pronouncing a word which is unfamiliar to 
them, even though it be a word of very easy con- 
struction. 

5. It is a rather difficult matter to get a child to 
give the sound of a letter alone. In pronouncing 
words he gives the sounds of the letters combined, 
but if you attempt to get a child to give, say the short 
sound of a in cat, you will find he does not seem to 
comprehend what you mean, and he will hesitate to 
repeat the sound after the teacher. 

6. The fact is, the child has been accustomed from 
infancy to pronouncing words, i. e. giving the sounds 
of letters combined in such a wa}^ that they represent 
ideas which he has previously acquired, and sounds 
alone and letters alone represent to his mmd no ideas 
at all. This is why it is a difficult matter to teach 
the alphabet or its sounds. 

From the above facts and from my own experience 
I have found the following method, which may be 
termed the " Eclectic Method,"* the most applicable 
in a countr}^ school : 

* See Wickersham's Methods of Instruction. 



74 METHODS OF TEACHING 

If EO suitable books or charts are at hand, I first 
show the class a simple object, as a box, asking its 
name. Then I show them a picture of a box in a 
book, or draw its picture on the black-board. Then 
I print the word box on the board. ISText I teach 
the difference between an object, the picture of an 
object and a word representing the object. Then 
I tell them the word is made up of letters, asking 
them how many, and naming for them each letter, 
requiring them to repeat them after me. Then the 
word is pronounced slowly, so as to somewhat isolate 
each sound. ISText I take a word having the same 
letters, or part of them, and drill in the same manner. 
The word ox would appropriately follow box, or at 
follow cat. A few letters are learned at a time; they 
are learned by using them, and their powers are 
learned at the same time. I proceed thus until all 
the letters are learned by their use in words familiar 
and easy of pronunciation. As soon as a few words 
are learned I combine them into sentences, and the 
pupils read them until they are quite familiar with 
them. The books may be used sometimes when they 
contain pictures and words which are applicable. 
Charts containing pictures and easy words will be 
found quite convenient. When a letter is learned by 
the pupil he may be shown a printed page and exer- 
cised in finding out the letter from among others. 
Blocks with the letters printed on them are very use- 
ful. With them words can be put together and taken 
apart. 

An ingenious teacher will find many ways of vary- 
ing the lessons and making them interesting. Pa- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 75 

pils, while learning to read, may be taught some ideas 
of number. This will vary the exercises and will in- 
terest the pupils. They may be required to count the 
letters in a word, the words in a sentence, the win- 
dows in the room or the number of panes in the win- 
dows, etc. There are some letters so nearly alike in 
form that pupils sometimes find it difficult to distin- 
guish between them, for instance b and d and p and q. 
The teacher may show them how they are made, that 
is with a straight line and a curve either at top, bot- 
tom, right or left sides. The pupil should be required 
to form the letters with pencil or chalk. This will 
give employment and help fix the forms of the letters 
in their minds. 

As soon as the letters are learned, exercise should 
be given in pronouncing words, and continued until 
they can call a great number of easy and familiar 
words at sight. Words having a similarity of sound, 
provided they are simple and convey ideas which the 
pupil is already familiar with, may be arranged in 
columns and pronounced first down the column and 
then across the pa^e. In this way words are learned 
by their resemblance to each other, and a test is made 
by pronouncing across the columns. 

^ FIRST READER. 

As soon as the child has learned to call a number 
of words readily at sight, attention should be paid to 
the following points : 

1. Secure Distinct Articulation. 
The teacher should see that the child opens his 



76 METHODS OF TEACHING 

mouth properly and articulates every sound fully and 
clearly. Never allow a word to pass until you are 
satisfied the pupil has articulated it as distinctly as 
you think it possible for him to do. There are de- 
fects of the vocal organs which may be remedied in 
great measure by practice, but it is not expected that 
a teacher should devote the time necessary to cure 
stammering and such like defects. This should be 
done at home or in schools specially for that purpose. 
Words of the lesson difiicult of pronunciation may 
be printed on the black-board, and the class pronounce 
in rotation or occasionally in concert. Let the pupils 
spell the difiicult words from the book and pronounce 
them. Then let the teacher pronounce them and the 
pupils spell them without looking on the book. Then 
let them read to a period, or a paragraph. 

2. Secure Natural Tones and Delivery. 

Do not let them drawl out their words. Right here 
many bad readers are made if attention is not paid to 
this point. This drawling habit will go with them 
through life. Read the sentence for them and have 
them read it as they would talk it. Teach them the 
use of the period and interrogation point. Other 
marks may be deferred for the present. 

3. See that Pupils take a Proper Position. 

The posture, whether sitting or standing, should be 
erect, with shoulders thrown back. Do not allow 
pupils to lean on anything. This is a very bad habit 
and pupils need to be corrected frequently for it. If 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 77 

it is not corrected here the habit of lounging will go 
with them through life. This is one of the greatest 
faults with which a country teacher has to contend. 
Pupils should stand with their heels nearly together 
and toes apart, about at an angle of forty-five de- 
grees. For a rest and change one foot may be thrown 
out so that the heel comes opposite the instep of the 
other foot. They may change weight of body from 
one foot to the other as often as necessary to prevent 
weariness. 

4. Cultivate Perception and Language. 

Ask questions upon the subject matter of the les- 
sons. Show them a picture and ask them to point 
out the objects. Print an easy sentence on the black- 
board, leaving a word to be supplied by the pupil. 
This will do for an occasional exercise. 

5. Prepare for the Next Lesson. 

Pronounce difficult words. They may be placed 
upon the board. Require pupils to print on their 
slates a certain number of words of the next lesson. 
This will give them occupation at their seats. Al- 
ways give a certain number of words to print and let 
it be a less number than is given at the head of the 
lesson, telling them to select what they think the 
hardest words. In this way they exercise their judg- 
ment, and it pleases them to be allowed to select the 
words. 

SECOND READER. 

Continue the methods used in the First Reader, if 



78 METHODS OF TEACHING 

necessary, to secure the points indicated under that 
head. 

You may ask more difficult questions upon the sub- 
ject matter of the lesson. Teach the use of the 
comma and semicolon. Give an occasional concert 
drill, something after this manner : 

The teacher reads a sentence, if it be a short one, 
or a part of a sentence, if it be too long, and the 
class reads after him. The signal for them to begin, 
a tap of the pencil. Repeat until all can begin and 
end at the same instant. In this way the fast readers 
are checked and the slow ones hurried up. Get them 
to imitate your tones and expression as nearly as pos- 
sible. Select the most difficult parts of the lesson to 
be read in this way. You can vary the exercise by 
asking questions about the punctuation marks or 
about the subject matter of what is read. 

Pay more attention to the spelling of the words at 
the head of the lesson. A greater number should be 
assigned to copy on slates than in the First Reader. 
Words that are missed by all the class may be printed 
on the blackboard and spelled in concert by the class. 

Teach emphasis and inflection by having them im- 
itate your reading. 

THIRD READER. 

Continue exercises given in Second Reader, making 
them more difficult. Teach the use of italic letters, 
the apostrophe when it is used in contracting words, 
and the use of capital letters. Tell them that the 
name of every person or place, the names of the days 
of the week, and names of the months, the words I 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 79 

and 0, and the first word after every period always 
begin with a capital letter. The other rules for the 
use of capitals may be omitted for the present. Fix 
these points by frequent drills. It is a good exercise 
to write a sentence occasionally on the board, omitting 
capitals where they should belong and placing them 
where they should not, and have the class correct it. 
Exercises in correcting false spelling may also be 
given. 

The pupil now should be taught, if possible, to 
write instead of print the spelling lists. Most pupils 
reading in the Third Keader are able to form the 
script letters, and wherever they can they should be 
required to do so. 

Give the meaning of the more difiicult words in 
the next lesson. First ask the class to define the 
words; if no one can give the meaning, give it 3'our- 
self, and tell them you will ask them at the next reci- 
tation. You can easily overdo this matter of defining 
words. It is best to talk to the class in a familiar 
way about the words, giving their meaning by their 
use in easy sentences. It is better even that they 
should pass some words which they do not know, 
rather than too great a tax be put upon their minds 
or too much time consumed by the teacher. (See 
p. 84.) 

Give exercises in articulation something after this 
manner: A word, as night, is written on the black- 
board, and the teacher asks the class to pronounce it. 
Then the teacher asks how many letters in the word, 
then spells it by sound, requirmg the class to repeat 



80 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the sounds after him, then asking them how many- 
sounds in the word, what letters are silent, etc. 

Exercises for articulation, should always be real 
words, not mere combinations of letters to represent 
certain sounds. I think it an error to drill children 
in pronouncing such combinations as fwoi, dofst, tifst, 
etc. For further examples of this kind see McGuf- 
fey's Third Reader, p. 9. 

FOURTH READER. 

Continue the exercises given in Third Reader where 
necessary. 

Grive miore frequent drills on emphasis and inflec- 
tion. Teach the use of inflection marks, quotation 
marks and hyphen. Have class criticise each others' 
reading. It is a good exercise occasionally to allow 
the class to remain at their desks and call out one at 
a time to step upon the rostrum and read a paragraph 
or two, the others criticising his position, tone and 
expression, etc. 

One or more words may be assigned to each pupil to 
spell and define from memory at the next recitation. 
The teacher may add to the words at the head of the 
lesson ; others, requesting the pupils to go to the Dic- 
tionary for their meaning. Teach how to find words in 
the Dictionary. Pupils may be required to write the 
word and its definition on the slate. Occasionally write 
a sentence on the board, containing proper names, com- 
mon abbreviations, contractions of words, etc., and 
require pupils to copy on slates. Make this an exer- 
cise in penmanship. Give the most common rules for 
the use of capitals and frequent drills to fix them. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 81 

As members of the Fourth Reader class usually 
liave other studies, not so much time need be spent 
writing the spelling lists as in the Third Reader. 

ADVANCED BEADING. 

Under this head comes Fifth and Sixth Readers as 
usually found in common schools. Continue meth- 
ods used in Fourth Reader, and practice frequently 
upon the exercises given under the rules of elocution 
in the books. Call the attention of the class to the 
rules which should govern them in the piece to be 
read. Passages which illustrate particular rules in 
the next lesson should be read and commented upon 
by the teacher as a preliminary drill. Explain geo- 
graphical and historical points in the lesson. Point 
out the beauties and excellencies of authors, and tell 
anything regarding their lives which you know and 
would be interesting to the class. Instruction may 
be given upon versification so far as pointing out the 
kinds of poetic feet, kinds of verse and poetic license. 
These matters to be governed by the powers of your 
pupils, the time allotted you, and your own qualifica- 
tions. (See page 35.) 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

The teacher should, in teaching reading, hold con- 
stantly in mind two points, viz: 1st. To secure a 
proper oral expression of written or printed composi- 
tion ; 2d. To develop and increase the power of grasp- 
ing thought. The first point is to be secured by con- 
6 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING 

stant drill and practice iu the management of the 
voice. In the cultivation of the voice four points are' 
to be considered, Quantity, Quality^ Compass and llove- 
ment. 

Emphasis, Force, Stress, Slur and Accejit are all mod- 
ifications of Quantity. These parts should be taught 
from the First Reader up, mainly in primary classes 
by imitation of the teacher. The greatest failing in 
schools comes under this head. One half of the pu- 
pils in all our schools do not read sufficiently loud 
and strong. Teachers should take particular pains- 
to remedy this by constant effort from the beginning 
of the pupil's school life. The teacher should stand 
at a distance from the pupils and require them to 
read loud enough to be heard in all parts of the room. 
Give frequent exercise in pronouncing the vowel 
sounds, words and sentences, with different degrees 
of force. 

The most difficult part of vocal culture, perhaps, is 
Quality of the voice. In order to read in a proper 
tone the reader must place himself in the position of 
the author and enter into his very soul, that he may 
express his feelings. The pupil must understand the 
nature of the sentiment before he can give the proper 
tone. Much may be learned by imitating the teacher, 
especially with very young pupils. 

ISTothing but careful training can give the proper 
jnteh and inflection of the voice, and ability to read 
well depends greatly upon this power. Certain vowel 
sounds, as a or o, or words as do, ra, may be given in 
different keys until the class is able to pitch their 
voices upon any key within their compass. Drills in 



IN COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 83 

inflection may be given by arranging a series of 
words and sentences in the form of questions and 
answers, requiring one portion of the class to give 
the question and the other the answer. 

Under the head of Movement come Rate and Pause. 
Many pupils habitually read too fast, while others are 
too slow. Concert reading, as an occasional practice, 
is good to regulate this matter. The marks of punc- 
tuation, cf •30urse, are not to be disregarded, but 
there are other pauses required by the sense, and the 
pupil must understand what he is reading or he can 
not give them. Paragraphs may be selected by the 
teacher and the class drilled in reading them with 
reference to rate and pause. 

The Teacher Should Endeavor to Develop the Power of 
Grasping Thought. 

A good reader is able to grapple with a whole sen- 
tence almost at a glance and take in its full purport. 
This part of mental training is very much neglected 
everywhere. But few persons, comparatively, know 
how to read a book so as to get at the substance of 
the discourse. We must know how, as it were, to 
swoop down upon a mass of words and bear away 
the ideas expressed. With many writers the words 
are so many and the ideas are so few and so well con- 
cealed that it requires the penetrating eye of a hawk 
and the power of a magnet to discover and drag out 
the gems of truth from the mass of rubbish. The 
teacher can do much by asking numerous questions 
upon the subject matter of what is read. The ques- 
tions should be asked in various ways, so as to draw 



84 METHODS OF TEACHING 

out the full meaning of the author. As an example 
of the method of asking questions to young begin- 
ners, I give the following : 

The trees lift up their green heads in the bright 
light of spring. 

Question. What lift up their green heads? 

Answer. The trees. 

Q. Where do they lift up their green heads? 

A. In the bright light of spring. 

Q. What kind of heads do they lift up ? 

A. Green heads. 

Q. What kind of light is spoken of? 

A. Bright light. 

q. Light of what ? 

A. Light of spring. 

Single sentences may be taken in this way and ana- 
lyzed until the pupils see the full force of what they 
have read. Questions of an entirely difterent charac- 
ter should also be given on the entire lesson, ques- 
tions which should be answered in the pupil's own 
language. Such questions will not only test the fact 
of their understanding of the lesson, but develop their 
power of expression and cultivate language. Exam- 
ples of such questions are given in most readers. 

It should not be expected of pupils that they under- 
stand absolutely everything the}^ read. There are 
many words which they may have an idea of, yet not 
a complete one, and many expressions which they can 
not see the full force and meaning; but these things 
•will be learned as they grow older. Again, a pupil 
may have a pretty good idea of the meaning of a 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 85 

word, yet not be able to express his meaning in 
words. This is the case with all of us, especially 
with many familiar words which we use every day. 
To test this, ask your pupils to give a definition of 
stove, chair, table, etc. Try yourself to give a defini- 
tion of these words. I venture to assert that not one 
teacher out of a thousand can give a complete defini- 
tion of these words. (See page 79.) 

Our text-books are not always just as they should 
be. Many of the lessons for young children are too 
far above their comprehension. 

Many teachers assert that pupils should be assigned 
very short reading lessons, and they should be read 
over and over again until they are thoroughly under- 
stood and can be read with a great degree of perfec- 
tion. This, I think, is a mistake. It is a hobby I 
used to ride myself, but I found it not a safe one, from 
this fact, children soon tire of one thing, and a piece 
read over so many times becomes almost disgusting, 
and less interest will be taken and consequently less 
progress made. Our reading books should be twice 
as large and twice as many. But an item of expense 
here comes in which is quite an objection. If we 
could only have many more lessons, each one illus- 
trating the same points in elocution, but in which the 
matter is difi:erent and consequently always something 
new and interesting, I think much greater progress 
would be made. The rule will apply all the way from 
beginners up. As soon as a child has learned to call 
a dozen words at sight, these words should be ar- 
ranged in as many sentences as possible, each sen- 



86 METHODS OF TEACHING 

tence expressing a new thouglif or expressing it in a 
new way. 

All children love stories. The juvenile papers and 
magazines and nursery books all have a great influ- 
ence in teaching children and youth to read. How 
much more progress would be made if they read 
them under the eye of a teacher than by themselves. 
But as we must accept our text-books as they are, for 
the present at least, what can the country teacher do 
in this case? I have a plan to propose : 

In many schools reading classes are small, some- 
times not more than two or three, and owing to the 
irregular attendance in country schools, there will be 
many days when some one or more of the .-lasses in 
reading will have but two or three pupils. In such 
cases assign a lesson from a newspapei-, a Sunday- 
school paper, a juvenile magazine, or any book in 
which you may find stories or descriptive sket.;hes 
suited to the wants of your particular class. The 
pupils can take the paper or book in turn and read 
the piece over, or copy certain parts of it on their 
slates, and when recitation comes they may look on 
the same book, or, each one having copied his own 
part, pay strict attention to the others reading their 
parts, and criticisms may be made by the class. The 
teacher may take a story from a newspaper and cut 
into sections, giving each one a section, and require 
it copied on slates and read from the slate at recita- 
tion. This can be made an exercise in spelling, cap- 
itals, punctuation and penmanship. 

Country teachers might club together and write 
or select from books or papers pieces suited to all 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 87 

their classes and have them printed in their county 
paper. A number of copies of the paper may be ta- 
ken by the club and each teacher use them in turn. 
If they are taken care of they may be used for many 
schools. Country editors can easily be induced to 
print such matter if the object i^ explained to them : 
in fact, if a club is formed and a number of copies 
taken it will be to their advantage to do so. Other 
matter in these papery, such as marriage and death 
notices, local news, advertisements, etc., may be used 
in advanced classes, as an occasionel variation from 
the monotony of the text-book. In this, as in other 
parts of teaching, ihe teacher should bend every fac- 
ulty to his work. (See p. 206.) 

In all his reading, which should embrace a wide 
scope, he should be on the lookout for whatever may 
benefit his classes. Little stories and sketches are 
found almost every day by a general reader, and the 
teacher should try to secure and preserve them for 
future use. 

Occasional reading lessons from the geographies, 
grammars, arithmetics and histories may be given to 
vary the exercises. The Constitution of the United 
States, the Declaration of Independence, Articles of 
Confederation, etc., to be found in all school histories, 
should be read -one or more times during a term by 
advanced classes. 



CHAPTER II. 

SPELLING AND DEFINING. 

The orthography of the English language is diffi- 
cult. The majorityof tlie words are not phonetic, and 
the rules for spelling have too many exceptions to be 
of much utility. 

"We learn to spell both by the eye and by the ear. 
Both written and oral spelling exercises should be 
employed. We hear a word spelled and remember 
the order of the letters, or we con the words over, re- 
peating the letters, and thus fix their order in our 
minds. Thus we learn by the ear. We see a word 
written or printed and observe the order and position 
of the letters as we would the objects in a picture, and 
they become fixed in our memory, and thus we learn 
by the eye. Writing spelling has the advantage 
of giving employment to pupils who would otherwise^ 
perhaps, be in mischief. It also aifords training to 
the hand and is an aid in penmanship. 

In addition to the spelling exercises in connection 
with the reading lessons, daily drills in spelling, de- 
fining, capitahzation, punctuation and abbreviations 
should be given, the entire school, from the Second 
Reader up,4participating. 

I have found it best to classify the school into two 

(88) 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 89 

general classes, a primary and an advanced. Each of 
these classes may be divided into two sections that the 
exercises may be graded to their capacities. The dif- 
ferent sections may be assigned different parts of the 
same lesson, but it can be so managed that tliere need 
be but one recitation for each class. Not less than 
fifteen minutes should be devoted to each recitation. 
For an advanced class I give a lesson something as 
follows : Ten or more words are selected and written 
upon the black-board in the morning, in as neat and 
plain a manner as possible, the letters made according 
to the Spencerian System. I can best illustrate this. 
by giving a model lesson : 

1. curriculum 

2. Joseph Ray, M. D. 

3. daguerreotype 

4. autumnal 

5. Wm. H. McGuffey, LL. D. 

6. stationary 

7. stationery 

8. Springfield, 111. 

9. Hon. E. S. Sampson, M. C. 
10. Marion Co. Democrat 

It must be explained to the pupils that words in 
these lessons are to be written just as they would ap- 
pear in the middle of a sentence. I have given above 
rather more words, which should be capitalized, and 
more abbreviations than I would in an ordinary les- 
son. Perhaps one or two such examples would be 
sufficient in each lesson. It will be seen by the above 
that capitalization, punctuation and abbreviations are 
taught in a natural manner. 



^0 METHODS OF TEACHING 

This lesson may remain upon the board until within 
.an hour of the time of recitation, which should be 
near the close of the day. During this time the class 
should be required to copy it on their slates one or 
more times. The most backward spellers, and those 
inclined to be idle, may be required to copy it oftener 
than the good spellers or those who are diligent. 
One or more words may be marked and arranged as 
a lesson in defining, the pupil to find the meaning in 
the dictionary. The modes of conducting the recita- 
tion may be various. The words are erased or, what 
is better, covered with a shawl, map or newspaper, 
before the hour of recitation. The teacher, having re- 
served a slate containing a copy of the lesson, requires 
the lessons to be erased from all other slates. He 
then pronounces the words and the pupils write them 
on their slates. Slates may be exchanged and the 
pupils criticise each other's work, or each one retain 
his own slate and mark the misspelled words as the 
teacher gives the correct spelling. The words may 
then be spelled orally, the slates being turned down 
on the desks. All words missed should be written 
again correerly by the pupils. Words missed by the 
majority of the class should be taken down by the 
teacher and used for future lessons. The covering 
may be removed from the lesson on the board and 
the pupils correct their slates from that. 

As an occasional exercise, say once a week, the 
class maybe provided with pens and ink and slips of 
paper to write their lessons. The lessons being dated 
and signed by the pupil, both sides may be used, and 
they may be kept as a record of the pupil's progress 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 91 

in spelling and penmanship. There are blank books 
provided for this purpose which are very convenient 
and cheap. 

These written spelling lessons may be varied in 
many ways. Occasionally, sentences should be given. 
The dictation exercises given in spelling books are 
very convenient. The lessons need not always be 
written. Oral spelling should not be neglected. As 
spelling books are common in most country schools 
the teacher may make use of them in various ways. 
Avoid a routine plan of teaching. Study new meth- 
ods of conducting spelling drills. There is nothing 
like variety here to keep up an interest. The old- 
fashioned custom of having a spelling match every 
Friday is not a bad one. The ingenious teacher of 
to-day will, however, find many ways of varying the 
old plan. A good method in oral spelling is to have 
the class numbered and their numbers written upon 
the black-board. The teacher then, with book in one 
hand and pointer in the other, pronounces a word 
and points to a certain number. The pupil corres- 
ponding to that number spells the word. If he misses 
a mark is made under his number and the word 
passed to another. By jumping rapidly from one 
number to another promiscuously, the pupils are com- 
pelled to pay close attention. The number of marks, 
then, will show the number of words missed by each 
pupil. Another plan is to have each one of the class 
have slate and pencil in hand, and whenever a pupil 
misses let him write the word on the slate. Occasion- 
ally, words may be written on the board falsely spelled 



92 METHODS OF TEACHING 

and pupils be required to write the spelling correctly 
on slates. 

In a written lesson, as given above, tlie teacher may 
define the words as he gives them out, sometimes by 
giving the definition as in the dictionary, or by giving 
a sentence containing the word, and make such re- 
marks about the origin, etc., of words or terms as he 
may think proper. Much interesting information 
may be conveyed in this manner which will not be 
lost on many of the pupils. He should avoid, how- 
ever, consuming much time in this manner. (See 
p. 79.) 

Primary classes may receive lessons similar to the 
above but limited to their capacities. Many will not 
be able to write with sufficient rapidity to write from 
dictation, but lessons may be placed on the board oc- 
casionally and copied by the class and then recited 
orally. Lessons from the spelling-book may be as- 
signed and copied on slates as a preparation and 
recited orally. Occasionally a class may be required 
to form their own lesson in the following manner : 
Tell them, each one, to write ten names of objects they 
saw on the road to school, or objects in the school- 
room, or things used in the kitchen, shop, etc. The 
slates are then collected and the words given out by 
the teacher. 'No two pupils will have exactly the 
same list o'f words. Perhaps out of the whole num- 
ber there will be some words which the majority of 
the class will miss. In this case a list should be made 
of such words to be used in future recitations. Easy 
abbreviations and contractions, such as Dr., Mr., can't, 
couldti't, etc., may be given primary pupils. It is best 



IN COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 93 

to exhibit them in sentences showing their use and 
meaning. The instruction in regard to use of capi- 
tals, punctuation, etc., given in reading classes should 
be repeated in spelling classes. When a class is di- 
vided into sections the lesson may be written all 
together, and words designed for the advanced sec- 
tion designated by a mark, such as a line drawn un- 
der them or by inclosing them in a parenthesis. 

I would impress upon the teacher the following 
considerations : 

1. Teach such words first which the pupil will be 
apt to use first in writing a familiar letter or in read- 
ing, ordinary composition. 

2. Constant reviews are necessary to fix certain 
hard words in the memory, therefore, all^vords which 
are frequently misspelled should be made the subjects 
of future lessons, and words which are very easy 
should not occupy the time of the pupils. 

3. Too many of the words found in spelling-books 
are to be found nowhere else outside of medical, 
law or other technical works, and pupils should not 
be required to study them until necessity for their use 
demands it. A common newspaper is one of the best 
places from which to select words for spelling lessons. 

4. In giving out words to be spelled the teachers 
should pronounce them distinctly and properly, as he 
would were he reading a composition containing 
them. He should never pronounce the word wrong 
to assist the pupil in spelling it. In oral spelling the 
pupil should be required to pronounce the word 
before spelling it, and in spelling to pronounce each 
syllable as he spells it. 



94 METHODS OF TEACHING 

5. In assigning a lesson call attention to one or 
more of the diffic alt words, telling the pupils such 
words they will very likely miss unless they study 
them particularly. I have pursued this plan with 
somewhat surprising results. If I found a very diffi- 
cult word I remarked, on assigning the lesson, that I 
did not think any one would be able to spell that 
word to-morrow. I could see among several pupils a 
look of incredulity, as much as to say, "I am not 
going to miss it," and the consequence was that the 
particular word was generally spelled by even the 
dullest in the class. 

6. It will not be amiss to teach something of 
spelling along with other branches. 'New words 
occurring in arithmetic, grammar and history may be 
spelled by the pupils. 

7. It may have been noticed by many teachers that 
those who spell well orally do not always spell cor- 
rectly when writing. I have seen pupils who could 
spell any word in the spelling-book if pronounced to 
them, yet if they were to write a letter to a friend 
would misspell ten per cent, of the words. This is 
owing, in a great measure, to carelessness. The hand 
being occupied in forming the letters, and the mind in 
composing, one is too apt to neglect the spelling of 
the words. This fault will be found more especially 
with those who have never been accustomed to prac- 
ticing writing spelling. Many persons habituall}'- mis- 
spell in writing certain very easy words. This is done 
by mere " slips of the pen," and is a result of want of 
attention. The teacher should take particular care to 
impress upon his pupils the importance of close 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 95 

attention to this matter. It is a good exercise to 
occasionally dictate a long sentence composed of easy 
words and have the class write it as rapidly as possi- 
ble and then correct the errors, not only in spelling, 
but in punctuation and capitalization. A short poem 
or hymn may be committed to memory or one chosen 
which is already familiar to the pupils, as " Mary's 
Lamb," "The Little Star," etc., and the pupils be re- 
quired to copy it from memory and afterwards correct 
their mistakes from the book. The Lord's Prayer, 
passages from the Bible, or any short piece of compo- 
sition the pupil is able to write from memory or can 
easily commit, may be used in this way. Each pupil 
may have a difierent piece and they may be allowed 
to exchange slates and criticise each other's work. 
The teacher may look over this work when corrected 
and point out such errors as may still be found. 
Beautiful lines of poetry or short, elegant extracts or 
quotations may be written on the board and commit- 
ted to memory, and in a day or two afterwards re- 
produced by the pupils on their slates. Such exer- 
cise may be given, say once in tw.o weeks, or monthly. 

8. Frequent exercises should be given in address- 
ing letters. The teacher may draw the outline of an 
envelope on the board and write an address in the 
proper place, showing where to begin the name, post- 
office, county and state, and where to place the stamp, 
and require pupils to draw and address a similar one 
on their slates, allowing each one to use the name 
and address of one of their friends. 

9. Difficult words may be sometimes spelled in 
concert by the class after the teacher, or written in 



96 METHODS OF TEACHING 

prominent characters on the black-board and allowed 
to remain several da5"s. 

10. The teacher may call attention to some of the 
most important rules for spelling and syllabication. 
Very few pupils will, however, learn to spell by rules. 
Call attention frequently to the diacritical marks used 
in dictionaries and spelling books. Give drills in 
spelling by sound. Call attention to words com- 
monly mispronounced and misspelled, and words hav- 
ing more than one authorized pronunciation or spell- 
ing. The dictionary should be in every school-room, 
one copy at least, and frequently referred to by both 
teacher and pupil. 

11. Says Wickersham, " "Words are the winged mes- 
sengers that convey information from one mind and 
heart to another. All knowledge must be labeled 
with words or it can find no place in the cabinet of 
memory." I need not add that it is of exceeding im- 
portance that pupils understand the meaning of words 
which they may find in their daily reading or hear in 
daily conversation. Many words are learned by a 
sort of unconscious intuition. Children pick up al- 
most daily and use new words which they hear in con- 
versation or find in their reading. They learn their 
meaning by their connection. The proper place, then, 
for the main study of words is in a reading class, but 
as it will not do to crowd too many things on the pu- 
pil's attention at one time the subject may profitably 
occupy a part of the attention of a spelling class. In 
fact, attention to the meaning of words should be 
given in every recitation on whatever subject. 

The teacher, in defining words for his pupils, should, 



IN" COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 97 

whenever possible, make the meaning plain by show- 
ing the object, action or quality which the words rep- 
resent. For example, the word calyx may be ex- 
plained by showing that part of a flower, the word 
diameter by drawing a circle with a line drawn through 
the center, also by exhibiting a block, box or ball and 
explaining that it means the dietance through from 
one side or end to the other ; the word compress by 
squeezing in the hand a handkerchief, a rubber ball 
or a sponge ; the words transparent and opaque, by 
pointing to the panes of glass in the window and to 
the walls of the house. 

The definitions sometimes given in the dictionary 
and in reading books are as difficult of comprehen- 
sion as the words themselves. In this case the teacher 
should give sentences which make clear the meaning. 

A slight knowledge of Latin and Greek will aid 
much in defining words, but it is not to be expected 
that pupils in a country school can make use of this 
knowledge. But it will be of great value to the 
teacher in studying words. He can, however, teach 
the meaning of a few prefixes and suffixes and show 
how they help make words, as ad, ex, in, sub, ion, con, 
de, re, etc., and their use in such words as aspect, in- 
spect, expect^ suspect, respect, conspectus, suspicion, etc. 

12. It will not be out of place here to mention that 
a small printing press is a valuable aid to good spell- 
ing and punctuation. Such presses with outfits can 
be had now for the small sum of five dollars. The 
teacher may have such a press and permit pupils to 
use it. He may so interest boys in the art that their 
7 



98 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

parents will be constrained to procure a press for 
them. The teacher will find a printing press of value 
to him for many purposes not necessary to mention 
here. 



CHAPTER III. 

ARITHMETIC. 

The idea of number is developed early in life. The 
study of arithmetic may be begun quite early but 
should not be pushed too rapidly. It is not the most 
important branch taught in our schools. Many teach- 
ers devote too much time to this branch to the neg- 
lect of more important studies. It is true a knowl- 
edge of arithmetic is indispensable in all ordinary 
operations of life, but the knowledge necessary for the 
practical work of life is soon and easily acquired, and 
all beyond this is of comparatively slight importance 
compared with many other branches. 

Mental or oral and written arithmetic should be 
taught together. There is no need of two text-books 
on arithmetic in common schools. All the principles 
and examples necessary to illustrate them might be 
comprised in one handy volume, which could be used 
alike by the primary and advanced pupils in our 
country schools. 

The first thing a child learns about arithmetic is to 
count. This he will learn to some extent with little 
or no instruction. Exercises in counting, and practice 
in forming the nine digits may be given in connection 
with reading. (See p. 75.) 

(99) 



100 METHODS OF TEACHING 

The teacher, in organizing a country school, will 
find it necessary to start a class in the first principles 
of arithmetic. He should begin with addition, it be- 
ing supposed the pupils are able to count to one hun- 
dred. Objects should be used at first, such as pieces 
of chalk, sticks, grains of corn, beans, books, marks 
on the black-board, balls on a frame, or the fingers. 
Commence with easy examples and advance gradually 
to more diflicult sums. Objects should be discarded 
as soon as the pupil acquires the idea of addition and 
can add with some degree of readiness. Examples, 
consisting of single columns of figures may be placed 
on the board and the pupils required to add them on 
their slates as a preparation for the lesson. These 
examples should consist at first of but two or three 
numbers, using the smaller digits and advancing to 
more numbers and larger digits until the pupil is able 
to add a column of a dozen or more figures, using all 
the digits from one to nine. In this way they will 
soon learn the addition table by using it. Oral and 
written exercises should be given in about equal pro- 
portions. Pupils will soon learn by observation to 
write numbers above nine so that they can write the 
answers to the examples given if they do not go above 
hundreds. The next step is to teach the first princi- 
ples of notation and numeration. Show that the 
value of a digit depends upon the place it occupies. 
Explain the use of the cipher and teach the places up 
to thousands. Drill until the pupils can name the 
first four places in any order you may point to them. 
Exercise the class in writing numbers from one to 
thousands. 'Next you may teach the process of car- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 101 

ryiag, and drill in adding more than one column of 
figures until they are able to add any sum the num- 
bers of which are less than thousands^ Subtraction 
should be next taught, using objects at first until they 
get the idea, then exercises in subtracting in one col- 
umn and then in two or more columns where the 
upper digit is always the largest, then the process of 
borrowing. Examples should be given until they are 
able to subtract thousands. Promiscuous examples 
in addition and subtraction may now be given and 
the method of proving subtraction explained. 

Further instruction and exercises in notation and 
numeration may next be given. Make haste slowly. 
There is no end to the examples you may give your 
class as practice in what you have already given them 
instruction. If you have not books containing ex- 
amples, write them on the board where they can be 
seen by the whole class. They need the exercises for 
practice, and the employment, they give, will keep 
them out of mischief. 

The next step will be to learn the multiplication 
table. It is best learned by using it. The teacher 
will, of course, preface the study of the table by an ex- 
planation of the principle of multiplication. He may 
illustrate by objects or by making marks on the board 
showing that it is a short method of addition where 
the numbers to be added are alike. Examples should 
be given where the multiplier and multiplicand are 
single digits, and next where the multiplicand is a 
large number, explaining the process of carrying as 
in addition, and next where both factors- consist of 
several digits. Practice multiplying numbers until 



102 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the table is learned, giving occasional review exer- 
cises in addition and subtraction. Oral drills on the 
tables should be given daily. Before advancing fur- 
ther see that the pupils can add, subtract and multi- 
ply with facility. 

Division is next in order, and with some pupils it 
will take a great deal of practice to make them per- 
fect. Drill as in the other rules, and for variety re- 
view what has been taught. Grive examples combin- 
ing the four fundamental rules, and keep up oral ex- 
ercises and drills in notation and numeration. Teach 
the use of the signs +> — ? X, -^, =. Addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication, division, and notation and 
numeration are called the fundamental rules, because 
all operations of arithmetic are carried on by means 
of them. The teacher should see that his pupils are 
thoroughly drilled in them before advancing further. 
Our text-books do not give a sufficient number of 
examples. Do not tire the pupils by requiring them 
to work the same examples over again, but give them 
new ones illustrating the same principles. This ob- 
servation will hold good all the way through the 
book. I have seen pupils who had "worked," as 
they said, half wa}' through the text-book, yet could 
not write nor read large numbers nor solve examples 
in long division. 

I can see no propriety in putting puzzling exam- 
ples embracing the fundamental rules immediately 
after division, as is the case in Hay's arithmetic. 
Such problems are rarely ever solved by the pupils 
without the aid of the teacher. Examples should be 
given embracing these rules, but they should be plain 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 103 

and simple, intended to give exercise in the processes 
of adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing, and 
not to test the child's skill in reasoning. He is not 
yet prepared to reason to such an extent. Of what 
use can an example like the following be to a child 
who has just learned the four arithmetical processes? 

A cistern of 360 gals, has 2 pipes, one will fill it in 
15 hours, the other empty it in 20 hours. If both 
pipes are left open, how many hours will the cistern 
be in filling ? — Ray's Arith., Part Sd, p. 64. 

An exactly similar example is given under Analy- 
sis on p. 265 of the same book. The teacher must 
use his own judgment about such matters and not 
blindly follow the text-book. He can give examples 
of his own which the pupils can solve, and which will 
give exercise in the processes they have learned, and 
such examples as the above should be omitted until 
the pupil has acquired the skill to solve them himself. 

Processes should be taught before rules, or rather 
the rules developed from the processes. The induc- 
tive method is the best in teaching arithmetic. Thus 
far the pupil has only learned processes, but they are 
processes he must use all through life, and are of 
more importance practically than the more abstract 
principles underlying them. When the pupil has 
reached a more mature age and greater intellectual 
development, the more abstract parts may be taken up. 

Examples somewhat like the following may be 
given as exercises in the fundamental rules : 

Write 495. Annex a cipher. This multiplies it by 
10. From this product let 495 be subtracted as many 
times as possible. The operation will appear thus : 



104 METHODS OF TEACHING 

4950 
,495 

4455 
495 

3960 
495 

3465 
495 

2970 
495 

2475 
495 

1980 
495 

1485 
495 

990 
495 

495 
495 

000 

It will be seen that after ten subtractions the re- 
mainder is naught. This proves that division is but 
" a short method of making many subtractions of the 
same number." Any other number than ten may be 
used as the multiplier, and it will be found that to 
make the final remainder naught there must be as 
many subtractions as there are units in the multiplier. 

The operation may be reversed ; by starting with 
naught and adding 495 ten times successively the 
number 4950 will be reached, proving that multipli- 
cation is a short method of adding equal numbers. 



IN COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 105 

By giving sucli examples as the above much exercise 
can be given the pupil with little work on the part of 
the teacher. The pupils make their own examples. 
Exercise iu proving subtraction, multiplication and 
division should be given, and some of the more im- 
portant contractions taught. 

Having had sufficient drill in handlmg simple inte- 
gral numbers in their fundamental relations, the pu- 
pil is now ready to commence with 

COMPOUND OR DENOMINATE NUMBERS. 

United States Money, though really a form of deci- 
mals, is placed under this head by some authors, and 
as it is simple and aifords much exercise in the fun- 
damental rules, and involving only one new idea, that 
of the separatrix, it is best taken up here. Particular 
attention should be paid to the fact that the separa- 
trix is used to separate dollars and cents ; that it is 
always placed after dollars and before cents, and should 
never in any case be omitted. Pupils need frequent 
reminding of this fact, and the teacher should see 
that the habit of attention to this matter is formed 
while very young. Explain to them that if this little 
matter is not attended to, serious trouble will arise in 
after operations of arithmetic. I have seen pupils 
working almost through the book who would make 
blunders of this kind constantly, and get examples so 
confused that they could not tell what they were do- 
ing, and all because they had never been taught the 
importance of the separatrix. Explain that in U. S. 
money ten units of one denomination make one of the 
next higher, and consequently they can be handled 



106 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the same as simple numbers, the only difference being 
that dollars and cents are always to be separated by 
the point. The fact that cents always occupy two 
places should also be impressed upon their minds, 
explaining that accounts are kept in dollars, cents 
and mills, and that dimes and cents are counted to- 
gether as cents, and therefore when the number of 
cents is less than ten there are no dimes, and a cipher 
must be placed next to the separatrix in the place of 
dimes. You may tell them that a mill is the tenth 
part of a cent or the one thousandth part of a dollar, 
and is not coined, being too small, but is of impor- 
tance in calculating large amounts. They will under- 
stand this better when they have studied decimals. 

Give numerous examples in adding, subtracting, 
multiplying and dividing U. S. money, many more 
than are given in the text-books. Examples of mer- 
chants' bills are given in most books, but the teacher 
should add many more, as they are of great practical 
value. In giving the example of a merchant's bill, 
use the name of some merchant in the neighborhood 
whom the pupils know, and give always the current 
price of items. Pay particular attention to the neat- 
ness of a bill, using abbreviations, capital letters and 
punctuation properly. Require pupils to copy the 
examples from the board as written by the teacher. 
An example of this kind will appear something like 
the following: 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 107 

BussEY, Iowa, July 16, 1879. 
Jas. H. Simms. 

Bought of Theo. "West: 

11 lbs. Coffee @ $ .25 

17 lbs. Sugar " .08 

2 Boxes Matches " .10 

3 Pair Shoes " 2.40 

12 Yds. Prints " .07 

23 Yds. Muslin " .12 

3 Spools Thread " .05 

2 Doz. Buttons " .03 

Eec'd Payment. $ 

Theo. West. 

The more apt pupils may be requested to make out 
and write on their slates bills of their own. This will, 
however, be a good exercise for review after the pupil 
has passed through Compound ]!^'umbers. 

Reduction of Compound E'umbers may now be 
taught. The tables should be learned by using them. 
If nurnerous examples are given and sufficient drill 
be had at recitation upon each table, the tables will 
soon be learned without the necessity of telling pu- 
pils they must commit them to memory. See that 
examples are written neatly and all denominations 
expressed by their proper abbreviations, attention be- 
ing paid to pronunciation. Illustrate by familiar 
objects, the different weights and measures in com- 
mon use. (See p. 39.) Do not neglect the oral drill 
on each table. Give practical examples, such as in- 
volve dimensions of the school-room, tables, desks, 
school-yard, fences, etc. 

It is a good exercise to require pupils to copy the 
tables from the books on their slates. Cloth Measure 
and Ale and Beer Measure not being now in use, 
should be omitted if found in the text-book, and Cir- 



108 METHODS OF TEACHING 

cular Measure and. English Money deferred until the 
pupil has made greater advancement. Keview by 
numerous promiscuous examples for practice, giving 
frequent drills on the tables. 

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division 
of Compound ITumbers may come next. Explain 
that numbers of the same denomination only, can be 
added or subtracted. Show that in simple numbers 
ten units of one denomination make one of the next 
higher, but in Compound Numbers some other num- 
ber than ten is used. Explain the process of carrying- 
and borrowing. Give practical examples in subtrac- 
tion ; let the pupil find difl'erence between dates, and 
require each one to find his own exact age in this 
way. Longitude and Time should be omitted until 
the pupil is more advanced. 

Review Compound Numbers until pupils under- 
stand what you have attempted to teach them. Do 
not turn the class back in the book. This is always 
discoufaging. But give a number of review lessons, 
taking up those parts in which you find the class to^ 
be the most deficient. This rule will hold good 
always. Never turn a pupil back, but advance slowly, 
giving plenty of exercises, and review frequently until 
all is thoroughly understood. 

The pupil is now ready to investigate some of the 
properties of numbers, generally considered under 
the head of factoring. 

A great deal of preliminary drill is here necessary 
to get pupils to comprehend the definitions. It is 
nonsense to require them to commit to memory defi- 
nitions and rules the meaning of which they can not 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 109 

comprehend. Pupils always expect their lessons in 
arithmetic to he mostly examples, and they will take 
little interest in studying definitions. Give numer- 
ous examples first and develop the definitions from 
them. Impress on their minds the idea of a factor, a 
multiple and a prime number. Teach the process of 
finding the least common multiple and greatest com- 
mon divisor, leaving the demonstrations until a future 
period, explaining that though they may see no im- 
portance in these processes at present they will as 
they advance in the book. 

The process of cancellation may next be taught, 
after which the pupil may commence Fractions. 

The idea of a fraction should be illustrated by 
taking some object, as an apple, a stick or a piece of 
paper and dividing it into equal parts. Then show how 
a fraction is written, and explain the terms numera- 
tor (numberer) and denominator (namer). Numer- 
ous examples should be given in writing and reading 
fractions, and thorough drill, until the class has the 
idea of a fraction and understands the terms, numera- 
tor and denominator. 

The process of reduction may follow, remembering 
to make haste slovdy, giving numerous examples and 
frequent reviews. I need not discourse further on 
this subject. The teacher, who has carried a class 
successfully thus far, will readily see what is needed 
to make proficient scholars in fractions. 

Fractional Compound l^umbers may next be stud- 
ied. Examples in IT. S. money and merchants' bills 
involving fractions should be given. Decimal Frac- 
tions may follow. Review simple numbers, showing 



110 METHODS OF TEACHING 

how they increase and decrease in a tenfold ratio. 
Impress the importance of the decimal point. Com- 
pare U. S. money with decimals, showing the advan- 
tages of the decimal system. 

Percentage should be studied before Ratio and Pro- 
portion. Impress particularly the fact that per cent. 
means so many hundredths, without regard to dollars 
and cents. I have made it a particular matter of no- 
tice, and have observed that more than half the pupils 
I have had under my care who have gone through 
the book had the idea that per cent, had reference 
particularly to dollars and cents. This may seem 
strange to a good teacher, but it is a fact. I may 
have happened to have followed poor teachers, which 
would account for it. Many examples such as the 
following should be given : 

A man had 64 hogs. 25 per cent, of them died. 
How many were left? 

In studying Interest, pupils should have exercise in 
writing promissory notes and computing the interest 
on them. 

Explain Insurance, Stocks, Brokerage, Commission, 
Discount, Present Worth, Taxes, Customs and Duties, 
Bonds, Coupons, etc., by familiar illustrations, and 
make them plainer than text-books usually do. 

Such subjects as Alligation, Exchange, Duodecimals, 
Arithmetical and Geometrical Progression should be 
omitted until the pupil has had thorough drill on the 
more important parts of arithmetic. 

The subject of Mensuration being of practical value 
to all classes should receive considerable attention. 
Let the pupil measure the school-room and find its 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Ill 

capacity in cubic feet, bushels, gallons, etc. Measur- 
ing fields, corn-cribs, granaries, wagon-boxes, timber, 
etc., is of practical value to farmers' boys, and such 
the country teacher has mainly under his care. 

The irregularity of attendance in country schools 
is so great that it is a difficult matter to conduct a 
class in arithmetic properly. The pupil is out of 
school a week and the class has gone so far ahead that 
he can no longer keep up with it. Must the class be 
held back to accommodate such pupils? Certainly 
not. The teacher must have a number of classes, so 
that those who are too dull, or too irregular in attend- 
ance, may fall back and join a lower class. If he has 
not time to give a regular recitation each day to ev- 
ery class, he can give them a drill on alternate days 
and examples for practice on intervening days. In 
this way he can manage to reach all. He should, 
however, take notice of each pupil every day in some 
manner. He may do this by assigning one class ex- 
amples to work on the black-board while he is con- 
ducting the recitation for the other class. He can 
then devote a few minutes to inspecting the work on 
the board. Each pupil should be allowed to travel 
as fast as he can, provided he thoroughly understands 
what he passes over. An apt pupil should never be 
held back to keep pace with a dull one. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

I would call attention to the following points, most 
of which are a recapitulation of this chapter: ^ 
1. As a rule, teach easiest parts first. 



112 METHODS OF TEACHING 

2. Do not hurry through the book, but give plenty 
of exercises under each subject. 

3. Teach processes first, principles next. Teach 
the rules by stating the steps in the process. 

4. ISTever require rules, definitions or tables to be 
committed to memory, but let them be learned by use. 

5. Let the pupil learn the explanations of rules 
from the book, the teacher only pointing them out 
and explaining the language of the book. 

6. Pay particular attention to the most practical 
parts of arithmetic, such as pupils will most likely 
use in after life. 

7. Give preliminary drill on each new subject. 

8. Require pupils to always use shortest methods 
of obtaining a result, but insist on clearness of ex- 
pression and neatness of work. 

9. An oral analysis of problems, involving only 
numbers small enough to be held in the memory, 
should always precede a written process. The first 
step then would be the oral drill in analysis; second, 
the written process, and third the rule, which is 
simply the statement of the several steps of the pro- 
cess. For example, the teacher should show analyti- 
cally that f of I is -^, and then deduce the written 
process for finding a fraction of a fraction, or that 4 is 
25 per cent, of 16, and from that the process of find- 
ing what per cent, one number is of another, or that 
f ^-J is 1^, and deduce the process of division of frac- 
tions and explain the reason for inverting the divisor. 
There may be some exceptions to this with young 
pupils, as for example, in finding the greatest com- 
mon divisor and least common multiple. 

10. Review often. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

" Geography can not be taught in any proper sense of the word by 
maps or a bald and wearisome nomenclature of countries, cities, 
mountains and rivers. What is wanted is that these should be inti- 
mately blended with the history of the world, of nature and the nis- 
tory of mankind, thereby better fixing the whole in the memory and 
giving to Geography its true rank among the sciences. The change 
thus indicated is in progress, but much is still wanted for its full ac- 
complishment." Sh' Henry Holland. 

Geography as taught in many schools — merely by 
question and answer, with an occasional map drills — is 
of little practical value, but in the hands of a compe- 
tent instructor who teaches, rather than hears a class 
recite, it is an interesting and valuable study. 

It has been my experience that but a small propor- 
tion of the pupils of a country school who are of the 
proper age study Geography. Upon inquiry the uni- 
versal reason given was that they did not like the 
study. Now, whose fault is this? Certainly the 
teacher's. The teacher should awaken an interest in 
this study in his school, and the way to do this is to 
teach it properly and persuade pupils to enter the 
class. If he teaches it as he should and succeeds in 
getting a pupil to enter the class and remain one 
week, I will venture to assert that that pupil will re- 
8 (113) 



114 METHODS OF TEACHING 

mail! for the whole terra. In my opinion there is no 
study of greater importance. It is a branch of knowl- 
edge which a Humboldt, a Ritter and a Guyot have 
adorned, and deserves no mean place among the 
knowledges of the earth. 

There need be bat two classes in Geography in a 
country school, a primary and an advanced. 

"With a beginning class I would proceed somewhat 
as follows : I am supposing the class is composed of 
pupils who have never studied the subject. I would 
begin with an oral drill on direction, next develop 
the idea of a map by drawing a map of the school 
room. I would draw the boundary lines on the 
board, explaining that the top of the diagram will 
represent north, the bottom south, etc., and ask the 
pupils to step to the board and make a mark to rep- 
resent the location of the stove, the teacher's desk, 
etc., and proceed until the pupils themselves have 
mapped out the school-room and located all the prin- 
cipal objects in it. The next step would be to map 
the school-yard, locating the school-house, the out- 
houses, trees and other objects. I might proceed 
from this to the surrounding faiT>ms; but perhaps 
enough has been shown to develop the idea of a map, 
that it is a representation of a, part or the whole of 
the earth's surface, l^ext, I may ask some questions 
about what is found on the surface of the earth. By 
a few leading questions I will obtain from the class 
the facts that rivers, lakes, mountains, cities, towns, 
etc., are to be seen on the earth's surface. Then I 
will tell them that we are going to learn all about 
what we would find on the surface of the earth if we 



liSr COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 115 

would travel over it, and about the different kinds 
of people and what they are doing, and many things 
that are very interesting and useful; that naen have 
learned these things by traveling and observing and 
have written them in books for us to study that we 
may learn without traveling far from home. With 
this preliminary drill they are ready to take up a pri- 
mary work on Geography and begin with the study 
of the form of the earth, the divisions of land and 
water, etc. If possible, use a globe to illustrate, if 
not, get a substitute for one, an apple or a ball. Ex- 
plain some of the more obvious modes of proving the 
rotundity of the earth. If possible take the class to a 
lake shore or river bank and show them capes, bays, 
islands, etc. Such objects can generally be found on 
a small scale along a river or lake shore. 

The topic method of teaching Geography can be 
made successful even with beginners, but the topics 
must be modified to suit their capacities. 

Most text-books on Geography are filled with ques- 
tions, and the teacher is tempted to fall into a rote 
manner of teaching and content himself with asking 
the questions and hearing the pupils answer. While 
I would not ignore questions in teaching, I would cer- 
tainly try to avoid depending on them. 

Slates should be used by primary classes in prepar- 
ing their lessons. The names of all the prominent 
objects of study in the lesson should be carefully 
written on the slate. For example, let the pupil 
write the words continent, island, cape, river, lake, 
etc., on the slate and be required to find the defini- 



116 METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion of the terms in the book. The teacher may 
write on tlie board the principal points of the lesson 
for the pupil to cop}^ In studying a map the teacher 
should require the pupils to write a certain number 
of cities, rivers, miountains, etc., allowing the pupil to 
select what he thinks the most important. Let the 
pupil write also a certain number of the products of 
a country, as wheat, corn, coal, iron, gold, silver, etc. 
Lessons may be assigned as they are laid off in the 
book, but a written exercise should always accom- 
pany them. Frequent review lessons should be given, 
involving all points of importance the pupil has passed 
over. 

Map drills should be had daily, sometimes the 
teacher pointing to the map and the pupils answer- 
ing as called upon or occasionally in concert, and 
sometimes the pupils in turn point out places on the 
map as mentioned by the teacher. 

It is a good exercise to take an ideal trip, as, for 
example, starting with Chicago, the teacher and class 
sail in imagination to New York, mentioning and 
commenting upon all the prominent places of interest 
they would pass on the route. I will here mention a 
few such routes: From London to St. Petersburg 
via Gibralter, following the coasts of Spain, Italy and 
Greece, and through Constantinople and Black sea, 
and up the river and overland across Russia. From 
St. Petersburg, through the Baltic and along coasts of 
Denmark, Holland and Belgium, to London. From 
London, again, to Pekin, around Cape of Good Hope 
and via Calcutta. From IsTew York to 'New Orleans 
following coast, and from thence to Pittsburg via Cin- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 117 

cinnati and by railroad back again to ITew York. A 
whaling voyage from Boston to the Arctic ocean. A 
trip from Philadelphia to Rio Janeiro for coffee. 
Such exercises may be made extremely interesting to 
children and are excellent for review. Mention may 
be made of the governments, races, productions, curi- 
osities and other peculiarities of countries as they are 
passed on these imaginary voyages. 

Do not attempt to teach too many things, but by 
frequent reviews fix thoroughly the most important 
points. For example, if a pupil learns that a certain 
State produces three or four certain staples, and can 
tell whether it is level or mountainous, can mention 
the capital and largest city and locate them, the prin- 
cipal river and lake, if any, and can give its boun- 
daries and comparative size and tell what direction 
from his own State — if these points are fixed by 
thorough drill he will remember them longer and the 
knowledge be of more practical benefit than if he had 
learned every little river, lake, town and all the minu- 
tia of detail, only to be forgotten perhaps before the 
next recitation. (See page 39.) 

It is a good idea to go over the main points of each 
lesson in concert as a kind of recapitulation at the 
close of each recitation. 

Suggestive questions, such as the following, m;iy 
sometimes be put to primary classes: 

What city is world-renowned for carpets ? In what 
city would you ride in a gondola instead of an omnibus? 
In what country do the women always go out veiled 
and the men wear loose, flowing robes and sit cross- 



118 METHODS OF TEACHING 

legged and smoke opi um ? What island is celebrated 
for its peat bogs, potatoes, oats and flax ? etc., etc. 

Review lessons may be given somewhat as follows: 
Each pupil is assigned a subject for investigation and 
report, something easy, yet which will require a 
search of the book, as, for example, John is told to 
flud all the countries in which mention is made of 
gold, Mary of silver, Henry of lions, Willie of ele- 
phants, Carrie of diamonds, etc. The names of the 
countries when found may be written on the slates, 
which are brought to the recitation and laid upon 
the teacher's desk. The teacher takes up a slate and 
calls on the owner of it to mention from memory as 
much as he can of what he has written. The others 
may criticise errors and add to it if they can. 

For primary classes it is best that all the pupils have 
the same text-book, but an advanced class may be 
taught entirely by the topic method, and it is even 
better if each member of the class has a difierent au- 
thor. I have used a topic list something like the fol- 
lowing : 

, -r^ . . I Boundaries, 

1. Position, S T • 1 , T -1 

i Latitude and Longitude. 

2. Size. 

3. Mountains and surface generally. 

4. Rivers and lakes. 

^ ^ ,•. r Gulfs, bays, straits, etc. 

5. Coastline, ^ ^ . , \ ' 

I Capes, islands, etc. 

6. Climate. 
Animal, 



Productions, -j Vegetable, 
I 
I Mineral. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 119 



Agricultural and grazing, 
Commerce and fisheries, 



I C 

8. Occupations, s ,,. . 

^ • Mining, 

L Manufacturing. 

9. Government, education and religion. 

10. Capital and largest city. 

11. Other cities and places of interest. 

12. History. 

13. Population. 

14. Miscellaneous. 

This is to be used in studj-ing the text of the sev- 
eral countries. It should be written on the black- 
board and copied by the pupils and pasted in their 
books. The teacher will explain the outline where 
necessary. In giving latitude and longitude, coun- 
tries sliould be compared with each other, foreign 
countries with our own States, and the States with 
each other. The absolute size of a few countries 
should be remembered, especially the pupil's own 
State, and other States and countries compared with 
it. Very large and very small States and countries 
should be compared, as Rhode Island and Texas, 
England and Russia, etc. In studying surface I have 
given mountains as the most prominent objects, but 
the pupil should be led to mention height above sea 
level, plateaus, volcanoes, basins, water-sheds, etc. 
The absolute height of the most important peaks in 
each country should be remembered and the direc- 
tion of the mountain chains noted. Rivers should be 
described by telling where they rise, what course they 
pursue and into what they empty. Lakes, either salt 
or fresh, having outlets or inlets, both or neither, 
depth, height above sea level, etc. The pupil should 



120 METHODS OF TEACHING 

be taught that climate depends on latitude, proximity 
to or remoteness from large bodies of water, cliaracter 
and proximity of ocean currents, height of land, slope^ 
character of soil, prevailing winds, etc. 

Under head of animal productions, the wild and do- 
mestic animals should be mentioned, and the articles 
produced from them, as furs, wool, feathers, leather, 
tallow, honey, beeswax, glue, bone-dust, bone, horn, 
silk, etc. The vegetable productions are such as grain, 
mentioning the difi'erent kinds, fruits, flax, potatoes, 
gums, resins, medicines, dye-stuffs, timber, turpentine, 
tar, etc. The mineral productions are the metals,, 
building material, as marble, granite, limestone, sand, 
lime, potter's clay, mineral paints, precious stones, etc. 
Under the head of commerce might be mentioned 
the principal articles of export and import. Under 
manufacturing, the different articles manufactured. 
Under head of history, if one of the States of the 
Union, its first settlement, when, where and by 
whom, date of admission, etc.; if other countries, 
some of the principal points in their history, as great 
battles, changes of government, etc. Under head of 
miscellaneous, mention may be made of anything that 
would be of interest and which can not well be 
brought under any of the previous heads, such as na- 
tural curiosities, races, languages and dialects spoken, 
peculiar customs of the people, national character, etc. 

The above list is flexible enough to adapt itself to 
an advanced class in any school. There is, of course^ 
great difference in pupils, and the teacher must recog- 
nize this in teaching any branch and adapt his plans 
to them. The pupil is to be made understand that 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 121 

he is expected to obtain the information here out- 
lined, and it need not matter where he obtains it, 
whether from this author or from that, or partly from 
one and partly from another. He may learn from 
travelers, from miscellaneous works or from news- 
papers, from any source, provided he gets the infor- 
mation in such a way that he can tell it. Dull and 
backward pupils will need to be questioned to bring 
out their knowledge, but this should not be done 
where it can be avoided. The pupil should be taught 
to rely upon himself and tell what he knows without 
being questioned. Pupils who have been taught in 
the old rote manner may make objections to this 
manner of study, but the true teacher will soon win 
them to his own views. He should explain to them 
the advantages, and at first modify the plan so as not 
to make too sudden a change. 

This topic list can not be used in all classes. Spe- 
cial outlines should be given in studying some of the 
points of Mathematical and Physical G-eography. 
Review lessons may be given by special outlines ; for 
example, lakes may be given as a lesson and outlined 
on the board somewhat as follows : 

Lakes. 

1. Origin. 

2. Classes. 

1. As to character of water. 

2. As to outlets and inlets. 

3. Elevation. 

4. Uses. 

5. Principal lakes of the world. 

1. As to commercial importance. 

2. As to elevation. 

3. As to size. 

4. As to beautiful scenery. 

5. As to any other peculiarity. 



122 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Mountains, volcanoes, seas, gulfs and bays, oceans, 
rivers, etc., may be outlined iu a similar manner. 
Such special outlines for review are of great practical 
value, gathering up, as it were, the knowledge which 
has been attained into parcels and labeling them. 

A special outline should also be given for the pu- 
pil's own State. This should be very full and mi- 
nute, embracing all the points which would be "worth 
remembering. Swinton's Geography develops this 
plan of paying particular attention to home and local 
■Geography and gives such an outline for the study 
of auy particular State. The teacher, however, who 
is acquainted with his own State and has paid some 
attention to outlining can easily produce one which 
will suit his purpose better than could be given here. 

The teacher should have a map of the State show- 
ing counties and townships, and if possible a map of 
the county. These maps should be provided by 
school boards for every school-house. The teacher 
may, however, do as I have done in several instances, 
draw on the wall with colored chalk a map of the 
county, showing townships, and in the township the 
school-house was in showing school district, school 
houses, roads, streams, etc. I copied them from bor- 
rowed' maps. (See p. 187.) 

Some system of map drawing should be pursued, 
but I would caution the teacher against making a 
hobby of it. It is a means and not an end. The 
teacher should recognize also the difierent capacities 
of his pupils in this respect. Some will seem to have 
a natural ability to draw, while with others it is a 
difficult matter to interest them or teach them to draw 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 123 

even passably. Particular pains should be taken in 
drawing the pupil's own State, but if it is one diffi- 
cult to draw do not give it as the first lesson. Prac- 
tice them in drawing some State of regular and easy 
outline. I need not say anything further on this 
head, as all text-books now give instructions in map 
drawing. 

For advanced pupils the teacher should prepare 
questions which will lead them to think and apply 
their knowledge, questions which can not be answered 
in the language of any book, but such as the pupil 
must deduce the answer from his own knowledo:e of 
the facts. As an example of such questions the 
teacher will ask why ISTew England is a manufactur- 
ing country; why Iowa and Illinois raise so many 
hogs; why gold and silver are not found in Illinois; 
why sheep are raised more extensively in Ohio and 
California; why JSTew Jerse}^ and Delaware raise so 
many fruits and vegetables ; why Iowa, Kansas and 
Nebraska have so few large cities ; wl^ education is 
not more universally diflused throughout the South- 
ern States ; why Indian corn is not raised in Eng- 
land ; why England has such fine breeds of cattle and 
horses; what would be the effect on the climate of 
Italy, France, Greece and Spain if the Desert of Sa- 
hara were turned into a sea; why the peculiar dry cli- 
mate of Colorado; whj' so many Spanish names of 
towns, etc., in the Territories and States west of the 
Mississippi; why so many French names along the 
St. Lawrence and Mississippi ; why Quito, being on 
the equator, has such a pleasant climate, etc. The 
teacher, who is well versed in a knowledge of Geog- 



124 METHODS OF TEACHING 

raphy, as he should be, can multiply such questions to 
any necessary extent. A few such questions should 
be assigned at one time, and the pupils allowed two 
or three days to prepare their answers. 

In the hands of a live teacher a class in GeogTaphy 
may be made the most enthusiastic and interesting 
class of the school. There are some points in teaching 
Geography which may be called Geographical Recre- 
ations. For example, the origin and significance of 
names of places and countries. If the teacher will 
consult "Webster's Unabridged he will find material 
of this kind. Also, the popular names of cities and 
States, as Garden City, Crescent City, Hoosier State^ 
Hawkeye State, etc. (See p. — .) 

The formation of some of the physical features of 
the earth's surface may be illustrated in a simple and 
pleasing m.anner by means of a large tray made of 
boards, in the shape of a box, about three inches 
deep and two feet wide by three or four feet in length. 
A dry goods box will answer by cutting it down to 
the required depth. Fill this with wet sand to within 
half an inch of the top. Mountains, hills, plateaus 
and plains may be formed with the sand. A volcano 
may be made by placing a piece of unslacked lime in 
a mountain and wetting the sand. In a little while 
the lime will slack and the sides of the mountain will 
become hot and crack open and an opening appear 
in the top, from which will issue steam and powdered 
lime. By inclining the tray and pouring a shower 
of water from a sprinkling can, the formation of riv- 
ers may be shown. If the sand is so arranged that 
the lowest part be along the center the water will 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 125 

collect and form a large river and its tributaries. The 
washing down of the mountains to form plains is also 
illustrated. The formation of canons may be illus- 
trated by taking clay and mixing it with water until 
a mud is formed, which, when allowed to dry in the 
sun or by the fire, will crack open, making large fis- 
sures, and by pouring water the fissures will be en- 
larged, showing how, in the course of ages, the inter- 
nal heat of the earth and the erosive action of water 
have dug these wonderful ditches. 

The latitude of a few prominent places should be 
fixed in the mind. The following is a good exercise 
for this purpose : The teacher, taking a globe or map 
of the world, and selecting a certain parallel, say 
40°, says, " I find on or near this parallel Columbus, 
C, Philadelphia, Pa., Rome, Italy," etc. Then, se- 
lecting another, say 30°, he says, " I find on this 'New 
Orleans, La., St. Augustine, Fla., etc. What is the 
latitude of Philadelphia, of J^ew Orleans, of Rome ? " 
etc. Then, selecting another parallel, he adds a few 
more places and asks questions promiscuously as 
before, the pupils answering in concert. In this way 
a short drill occasionally will fix the latitude of the 
most prominent places in the world in the pupil's 
memory. Other places may be compared with them. 
For example, if one wishes to know the latitude of 
Mobile, Ala., he has only to remember that it is a 
little further north than ISTew Orleans, and therefore 
near 30°. About ten years ago I participated in a 
drill of this kind at a teachers' institute in which T. 
"W". Harvey was instructor, and I do not think I shall 
ever forget the latitude of a number of places I there 



126 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

learned in a few minutes' drill. The teacher who is 
alive to his work will find many such expedients as I 
have here given, and will need no further suggestions 
from me in regard to teaching Geography. 



CHAPTER V. 

GRAMMAR. 

J. R. Sypher, in "The Art of Teaching School,'^ 
says : " If, in the spelling classes, the uses of capital 
letters and punctuation marks have been noted — as 
should be the case in spelling from dictation and dis- 
course — and if, in the reading classes, the structure 
of sentences, the meaning of words and the uses of 
punctuation marks have been properly studied, there 
is little remaining to be taught on the subject of Gram- 
mar, to pupils in the public schools, that properly 
comes within the scope of these institutions." There 
is much truth in this. I have advocated particular 
attention to defining, punctuation, use of capitals, etc., 
in reading and spelling classes, because these points 
are essential to the practical every-day duties of life, 
and from the fact that comparatively few pupils who 
attend our country schools ever take up the study of 
Grammar. 

The country teacher is expected to have a class in 
Grammar, and it should be taught in our country 
schools, but I protest against the manner in which it 
is usually taught. There is no need of, nor no time 
for, a primary text-book in Grammar in a country 
school, and indeed in any other school. The pri- 

(127) 



128 METHODS OF TEACHING 

mary instruction in Grammar should be given in 
reading and spelling classes, and by general criticisms 
and oral drills in connection with every other subject. 
That is, the pupil should be taught to use the English 
language properly. All written and oral exercises 
where the pupil is required to use language are exer- 
cises in Grammar. The teacher should always use 
accurate language, and correct every error made by 
the pupils. This should be carried to the play-ground, 
and everywhere the pupil comes in contact with the 
teacher, provided it can be done without giving ofiense 
to any one. Primary Grammar should consist of 
language lessons, and every lesson, on whatever sub- 
ject, should be also a language lesson, I am using 
the word "Grammar" in the sense understood from 
the definitions given by nearly, if not all, writers of 
text-books on the subject, and from the definition of 
the term given by Webster — that is, that it is the 
science which teaches us how to use language cor- 
rectly. Wickersham, in "Methods of Instruction," 
page -246, says: "Grammar is the science of sen- 
tences. * * * Grammar Is not an art. Compo- 
sition treats of the art of speaking and writing." 
Hon. E. E. White, in "The National Teacher," says: 
" Notwithstanding Lindley Murray's definition, Gram- 
mar is not the means for acquiring the art of speak- 
ing and writing correctly. It is at best only the 
finishing instrument. The correct. use of language 
must be learned, as every other art is learned, by prac- 
tice under intelligent guidance. School training should 
furnish this practice in a large measure. There can 
not well be too much of it. It should enter into 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 129 

■every recitation, and besides have a separate place in 
the daily programme. Composition should be taught 
as faithfully as arithmetic." 

I give these extracts for what they are worth. 
They simply show the difficulty of defining terms. 
I will add that it is the duty of teachers to teach that 
which will cause pupils to think, and at the same 
time to express their thoughts, either with the tongue 
or pen, in the most fluent, elegant and correct man- 
ner. They can be led to improve their thinking pow- 
ers to a greater or less degree by the study of any sub- 
ject whatever; and the power of expressing thought 
is taught under the heads of Reading, Spelling, De- 
fining, Grammar, Rhetoric, Composition, Elocution, 
Oratory, etc. I will refer the reader to the definitions 
of these terms given by Webster and by the various 
authors of text-books on the respective subjects. 

The question, with the country teacher having a 
class before him with text-books in Grrammar in 
their hands, is, what part of the book shall be taught. 
I will answer in a general way by saying, teach that 
which will aid them most in expressing thought, 
either by tongue or pen. But, to be more specific, I 
will suppose a class who have never studied the sub- 
ject technically to have in their hands Harvey's, or 
Holbrook's, or Clark's, or Adams', or any other suit- 
able text-book for common schools, and I will tell 
you where I think you ought to begin. 

The first lesson in technical Grammar should be on 
the structure of simple sentences. 

Write a word, as run, on the blackboard. Ask the 
9 



130 METHODS OF TEACHING 

class to tell you the name of something that runs.. 
They will probably say : " Horses run," " A dog- 
runs," "Water runs," etc. You may tell them that 
it is not correct, and they can see that it would not 
sound well to say "Horses runs," or "A dog run.''' 
l!^ext you may write the sentence, Horses run, on the 
board, and tell them that it is a thought expressed in 
words and is called a sentence. Then give an exer- 
cise in producing sentences. Have the class give half 
a dozen sentences similar to this, and you may write 
them on the board. IText you may teach them the 
principal parts of a sentence, the subject and predi- 
cate. Be sure that pupils have a clear idea of these 
terms. I remember that when a boy studying Gram- 
mar the definitions of subject and predicate were 
for a long time not understood. I did not know 
what was meant by affirmed, when the book and 
teacher said, "The subject is that of which some- 
thing is affirmed." It sounded big and frightful, and 
I never had a clear idea until I saw somewhere the 
definition, " The subject is that of which something 
is said or written." N'ow, I might have been an 
unusually dull boy — in some respects I know I was — • 
but are there not dull boys in every class ? The best 
teacher makes a subject plain to the dullest in his- 
class. Give plenty of oral exercises, somewhat as fol- 
lows : Chalk is brittle. What is brittle ? What is 
said about chalk? What is the subject of this sen- 
tence? Why? What is the predicate ? Why? Re- 
quire class to write three or four sentences for each 
lesson. Write a word, as " Fire'' on the board. Ask 
the class to write as many predicates as they can to- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 131 

this subject; also write a predicate, and require them 
to write a number of subjects. Most text-books now 
give model exercises which will suggest the oral drill 
to the teacher. 

After several lessons on the simple sentence, and 
when the pupils thoroughly understand the principal 
parts of a sentence, I would study the noun. The 
first lesson would be an outline of the noun, to be 
made out by teacher and pupils. The teacher writes- 
the main heads and tells where to write the subordi- 
nate parts. The outline, when completed, will stand 
as follows, the parts in italics showing what was 
written by the teacher and those in Roman the parts 
filled in by the pupils : 

Noun. 



General. 

Common. 
Proper. 

Special. 
Abstract. 
Verbal. 
Collective. 
Class. 



Properties. 



Gender. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Common. 

Neuter. 



132 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Person. 
First. 
Second. 
Third. 

Number. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Case. 

Nominative. 
Possessive. 
Objective. 
Absolute. 

Pupils who have had exercise in outlining in other 
studies, perhaps would be able to produce the above 
without the aid of the teacher. But this is intended 
to be merely suggestive, and the teacher must pro- 
ceed according to the circumstances present. Several 
lessons may be made from this outline, discussing all 
the parts until a pretty thorough knowledge of the 
noun is secured, so far as can be, without reference 
to other parts of speech. The parsing of nouns, so 
far as the pupil is able from what he has learned, and 
exercises in writing sentences containing nouns, illus- 
trating their properties and classes, should be a part 
of every lesson. The advantage of writing parsing 
lessons will be obvious to any thinking teacher. It 
will secure exercise in spelling, punctuation, capitali- 
zation and penmanship, will be more interesting, and 
lead to definite and accurate thinking. The teachers 
should have some particular order of parsing, and 
require all pupils to follow it. In another place will 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 133 

be given models for the written parsing of each part 
of speech. 

In a similar manner to the noun the verb may be. 
studied. An outline giving classes and properties is 
to be made out and the different parts of it dis- 
cussed. The more difficult parts may be omitted 
until a future time, taking only such as are usually 
given in large print in text-books. This outline is 
to be studied the same as the outline of the noun, 
taking a small portion at each lesson, and giving oral 
and written exercises as before. 

The next step is to introduce the objective element 
into the sentence. The pupil now will understand 
that a sentence must have a subject and a predicate, 
and may have an object. The pronoun may be stud- 
ied next, to be followed by the adjective, adverb, 
preposition, conjunction and interjection, each to be 
outlined and discussed as above. After a discussion 
of the adjective, adverbial and independent elements 
of a sentence, a review of the parts of speech, begin- 
ning again with the noun, should be had, studying 
them in their relations to each other. This time the 
pupils can make the outlines themselvciS, adding all 
the minor points. Compound and complex sentences 
may next be considered, and the lessons varied with 
plenty of written exercises in parsing, writing sen- 
tences and diagramming. 

The teacher is now ready to introduce the subject 
of composition writing. This is a great bugbear to 
most pupils in country schools, but it is the fault of 
no one but the teacher. I remember, when a boy. 



134 METHODS OF TEACHING 

attending a term of scliool taught by a lady who re- 
quired, every Friday, a composition from each pupil 
who was old enough to write. By dint of coaxing 
and threatening she succeeded in getting ev^ery one 
to try but me. I was obstinate, and no coaxing or 
threatening would induce me to attempt what I was 
confident I could not do. The pupils wrote compo- 
sitions on such subjects as Spring, Autumn, sunset, 
education, and their thoughts and language were 
almost sublime. It is said there is but one step from 
the sublime to the ridiculous. They had almost taken 
that step backward. Years afterward I attended a 
select school, and the teacher was a true teacher, and 
instead of requiring us to write compositions he 
taught us how to write them, and then it was only 
necessary to give us the privilege. 

Sentence writing is the first step to composition 
writing, and if the teacher has thus far given suffi- 
cient exercise in that branch the next step will be 
easy Enough. All that is necessary for a composition 
is to put together a number of sentences relating to 
the same subject. But no one can write sentences or 
composition unless he has something to write about. 
A single word is not sufficient for a subject for a be- 
ginner. He must have an outline or skeleton of what 
he is going to write about. This the teacher must 
provide, and he must give instruction on points of 
the outline, at first, until the pupil has acquired suffi- 
cient skill and command of language and power of 
thought to construct the outline for himself. 

Beginners, if left to themselves, will generally 
choose some broad theme, as Education, Intemper- 



IN COUNTEY SCHOOLS. 135 

ance, etc., not knowing that it is far easier to write 
on a more restricted subject. Men of such broad and 
liberal culture as Herbert Spencer may take such a 
subject as Education for an 'essay. The brilliant 
essayists of this country, as Whipple, Lowell and 
Holland, may take for their themes Humanity, Lib- 
erty, Truth, etc., but a beginner should choose some- 
thing more concrete and restricted, such as Wheat, 
Apples, Dogs, Cats, A Walk in the Country, What I 
Saw at the Fair, etc. 

The simplest form of essay writing, perhaps, is to 
write a number of questions and require the pupil to 
write out the answers in full and connect them to- 
gether. For example, let rae suppose the subject to 
be "My Hog." The teacher will write a series of 
questions, as follows : Have you a dog? What kind 
of a dog is he? What is his color? Has he long 
hair? What kind of a tail has he ? Will he bark at 
strangers? Is he cross? Will he do what you tell 
him? Will you name some of the smart things he 
can do? Does he dislike children? What is his 
name ? 

The essay, when written, will appear something 

like the following : 

MY DOG. 

I have a large Newfoundland dog. He is all over black, except a 
white ring arou-nd his neck. He has long, shaggy hair, and his tail 
is long and bushy and curls up over his back. He ■will bark at stran- 
gers, but he is not cross, and will not bite any one unless he thinks 
they are going to steal something. He will do almost anything I tell 
him. He will bring the cows and horses up from the meadow, will 
fetch sticks out of the water, and carry a basket in his mouth. He is 
not cross to children, but will let them ride on his back or pull him. 
round, and seems to enjoy the fun. His name is King. 



136 METHODS OF TEACHIXG 

A few such exercises as the above will, to use a 
common expression, get pupils in the way of writing^ 
compositions. It is frequently necessary to resort tO' 
such expedients to get pupils interested and started, 
after which they may become the best of writers. I 
have no doubt that the name Composition has fright- 
ened many a person who, b}^ proper training, would 
have made a good writer. 

The next easiest kind of composition is that of let- 
ter writing. Familiar letters to friends, giving an 
account of a party, a sleigh-ride, a picnic, a descrip- 
tion of their homes or their school-house, telling^ 
what work they have done or what studies they are 
pursuing, or anything else which may interest them^ 
may be written by pupils in a Grammar class. There 
will be no difficulty in getting the majority of pupils 
in such a class to try their skill at such work. There 
may be some who will refuse, either from diffidence 
or from stubbornness, to attempt anything of the 
kind, but by kind endeavor, by argument, they may 
be won over by the teacher. 

The teacher should not be too severe in criticising 
compositions of beginners; rather praise than con- 
demn, confining criticisms at first entirely to spellingy 
capitalization, grammatical errors and the more im- 
portant parts of punctuation. As the pupil acquires 
more skill in the use of the pen in conveying thought 
the criticisms may extend to the matter of elegance^ 
style, etc. After exercise in writing compositions 
from questions and in writing letters of friendship, 
easy descriptions may be attempted. The following^ 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 



137 



outline and essay on "Stoves" will be suggestive of 
this kind of exercise : 



With regard to use : 

Cooking. 

Heating. 

With regard to shape : 

Box. 

Cannon. 

Plain. 

Ornamental. 

With regard to fuel : 

Wood. 

Coal. 

Gas. * 

Oil. 



Stove. Kinds. 

Definition. 
Parts. 
Top. 
Bottom. 
Sides. 
Doors. 

Body. 
Hinges. 
Lids. 
Ovens. 

Water reservoir. 
iHearth. 
Dampers. 
Pipe. 
Flues. 
Ash pan. 
Mica doors. 
Grate. 

STOVES. 

A stove is an iron box, arranged in such a manner that a fire can 
be made in it and the smoke and gas conducted out of the room, and 
is used for the purpose of heating rooms and for cooking food, etc. 

Some stoves have a flat top with holes, which are covered with lids^ 
for the purpose of cooking, heating water, etc. Others have round 
or irregular shaped tops, made more for ornament than for use. The 
sides are generally ornamented with raised designs. Some are pro- 
vided with ovens for baking purposes. Under the oven there are 
flues for conducting the heated air. In front there is a receptacle for 
ashes called the hearth, containing sometimes a pan to hold the ashes, 
which can be lifted out and emptied when full. An arrangement is 
made in the flue or pipe to open or shut, to regulate the draft. It is 
called a damper. Stoves for burning coal have grates to hold the 
coal up, so that the ashes will separate. All stoves have doors with 
hinges. Sometimes these doors have little windows with a transpar- 
ent mineral called mica in them, instead of glass. Glass could not 



138 METHODS OF TEACHING 

be used, as tKe lieat would crack it. These little windows make a 
stove look very pretty, as through them we can see the glowing fire. 
I like to sit and look at the bright, glowing coals. 

There are many kinds of stoves. We may divide them into kinds 
■with regard to use, as cooking stoves and heating stoves, or witli regard 
to shape and style, as box, cannon, plain and ornamental stoves; also 
with regard to the fuel used, as wood, coal, oil and gas stoves. Some 
stoves are very pretty pieces of furniture, and cost a great deal of 
money. 

There are many familiar objects which would be 
much easier to describe than a stove. I have o:iven. 
this as aa example of what may be done by almost 
any pupil old enough to use a text-book in Grammar, 
Many pupils could write a far better description than 
the one given above. The teacher should make sug- 
gestions upon the outline, giving facts which the pu- 
pil may not be possessed of and hints in regard to 
■describing the different parts. The points in the 
above outline may be drawn from the class by judi- 
cious questioning. These essays need not be long. 
Better write short compositions, and have them well 
written, than long ones badly composed. 

I have found that children, and indeed all of us, do 
not lack so much for language as we do for ideas, or 
rather ideas in a classified and connected form. This 
exercise of outlining furnishes a means of arranging 
our ideas in a proper shape so that we can write or 
speak of one thing at a time and in a proper order. 
In this way we need not repeat nor omit anything, 
for the plan and order of what we are going to say is 
mapped out for us. One will indeed be astonished 
at his own knowledge when he sees it thus arranged 
and spread out before him. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 139 

After exercises in easy description, subjects in sim- 
ple narration may be given. Let the pupils narrate 
what they did during the previous day or week. In 
the lives of the humblest individuals enough trans- 
pires almost every day, if all the minutiae were writ- 
ten, to make quite a lengthy composition. Any one 
can certainly say more than Mark Twain said in his 
diary which he kept when a boy, viz : " Got up, 
washed and went to bed." This was all he could 
think of each day to write in his diary, so he kept 
repeating it day after day until it became tiresome, 
and he abandoned the idea of keeping a diary. Let 
a pupil narrate all the actions in order as he can call 
them to mind, from getting up in 'the morning to 
going to bed at night'. For example, let me enumer- 
ate some of the actions of a boy during one day: 
Got up, washed his face, combed his hair, ate his 
breakfast (here I might enumerate the different arti- 
cles of food eaten, tell some things that were said at 
the table, etc.), carried in wood, chopped wood, fed 
the horses, cows, sheep and pigs, carried water, went 
to a neighbor's on an errand, started to school, met 
some other boys, played awhile on the road, was late 
to school, studied and recited the various lessons (here 
I might tell some things that he learned), played cer- 
tain games at noon and recess, came home, did the 
chores, which I need not enumerate, being the same 
as he did in the morning, ate supper and went to bed. 
Have I omitted anything? Yes, I did not say he ate 
dinner. ITow, let a boy tell all this in his own way, 
subject to the criticisms of his classmates and teacher, 
and he will have quite a little piece of narration, and 



140 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the foundation may be laid for a future journalist. 
Let the pupils give an account of some accident 
which happened in the neighborhood, or of a quar- 
rel which took place on the play-ground, or an ac- 
count of a trip to some town, river or lake, or an ac- 
count of an excursion, a picnic, or a visit to a factory 
or foundry. 

This essay writing should be given in connection 
with a review of the points of technical Grammar, 
and need not be a daily exercise. Perhaps about two 
days out of the week may be profitably devoted to 
this; the other three to written and oral lessons in 
parsing and analysis. This matter will, however, 
vary with circurdstances. The teacher must be the 
judge. 

Grammar need not be considered a dry, hard study 
if it is properly taught. As before stated, there 
should be but one class in Grammar in a country 
school, but that class should have, on an average, 
seven or eight pupils, instead of two or three, as is 
the case in schools which have come under my ob- 
servation. 

I append a few models for the written parsing of the 
parts of speech, as being suggestive to the teacher : 

NOUN. 

John studies grammar. 

John, n., prop., masc, third, sing., nom., subj. of 
the prop., John studies grammar. R. The subject 
of a proposition, etc. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 141 

PRONOUN. 

I bought the hook. 

I, pron., pers., simp,, antec, name of the person 
speaking, masc, first, sing., R. [Here give rule for 
agreement.] nom., subj. of the prop., I bought the 
book. R. [Here give rule for construction.] 

1 remember ivhat you said. 

What, pron., rel., equivalent to that which, that be- 
ing the antee. part and which the relative. 

That, adj., pronom., used as a noun, obj., object of 
V. remember. 

Which, pron., rel., antec. that, neut., third, sing., 
obj., object of v. said. R. 

VERB. 

Liberty is sweet. 

Is, v., irreg. (am, was, being, been,) intrans., indie, 
pres., third, sing., agrees with subj. liberty. R. 

ADVERB. 

He acted wisely. 

Wisely, adv. (comp. wisely, more wisely, most wise- 
ly,) of manner, modifies v. acted. R. , 

ADJECTIVE. 

The diligent boy will be praised. 

Diligent, adj., descrip., com., (comp. diligent, more 
•diligent, most diligent) pos. qualifies n. boy. 



CHAPTER Yl. 

HISTORY. 

History is one of the most important of studies, yet 
I venture to say of those who have considerable know- 
ledge of history, that they did not obtain much of it 
in school. History is a narration of events. ITo one 
has a memory sufficient to retain all events which 
have been made known to him. The great mistake 
made by too many teachers is, that they try to teach 
History in detail, and the pupils, in trying to remem- 
ber all, remember but little. It is like trying to take up 
a dozen eggs at once in one hand. In the endeavor 
to grasp all we get none. Could we, indeed, remem- 
ber all the details of History, of what benefit would 
it be? It is only the great events and the lessons to 
be drawn from them which are of benefit to us. I 
remember studying History in a country school, years 
ago. We read a lesson over and the teacher asked 
us all the questions found at the bottom of the page. 
We answered many of them and generally in the 
language of the author. The teacher pronounced us 
good scholars, but to-day I can scarcely recall a single 
event learned from that book. I distinctly remember 
the portraits of Washington and Daniel Webster, 
miserable wood cuts, that had, I suppose, a faint re- 

(142) 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 143 

semblance to the shadows of those great men, also a 
picture representing the death of General Wolfe, and 
that the book was bound in black cloth and had red 
edges, and that is about all I can remember. I have 
since then taken considerable interest in reading His- 
tory in course; but I can say that I learned far more 
that has been of real benefit to me by teaching it, 
and my success I ascribe to the fact that I tried to 
select a few of the most important events and their 
dates to fix in the minds of my pupils, and in doing 
so, I learned them myself. 

The greater number of the text-books on History 
used in our schools are failures, even in the hands of 
good teachers. Why? Because they are but masses 
of dry details. Why not give only the most impor- 
tant events and illustrate them, by anecdote and by aj 
felicitous mode of relating them, rather than cata- 
logue-like paragraphs, giving only the dry bones or 
chronology of the subject. There may be others, but 
thus far I have seen but one book which meets my 
ideas of a good school History. It is Barnes' Brief 
History of the United States, published by A. S. 
Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago. If the teacher 
have not such a work he should have half a dozen 
difierent authors and be well read in different works, 
that he may, when he has selected the important 
points, so illustrate them that pupils will remember 
them in spite of themselves. 

The main point in learning History is to make 
many minor events cluster and crystallize around 
some important fact which should be learned as thor- 
oughly as the multiplication table. The association 



144 . METHODS OF TEACHING 

of ideas aids mucli in the study of History. "Why 
do we all remember who General Greene was? Be- 
cause he figured in the Revolution, and that is one of 
the events which will be remembered the easiest by 
all readers of History. So, when we think of the 
Revolution, we think of a hundred other things more 
or less directly connected with it. 

The best way probably to teach history is to re- 
quire the pupils to write essays on historical subjects, 
but this is impracticable in country schools. The 
next best plan is to assign each pupil a topic for in- 
vestigation and report. A lesson of considerable 
length may be assigned the class, dividing it up into 
portions, giving each pupil a certain subject to inves- 
tigate especially, but expecting him to read the whole 
lesson over several times carefully. Certain portions 
of the lesson may be read at recitation, the same as 
in a reading class ; then each pupil is required to re- 
port on his topic, others criticising and adding to it 
if possible. In this way the whole lesson may be 
brought out, and by class drill on the most important 
parts, and by daily reviews, a pretty thorough knowl- 
edge of the whole subject may be obtained. The most 
important parts should be reviewed until fixed, and 
then the lesser details may be taken up. Remember- 
ing dates is not the whole of studying history, but it 
is an important part of it. Some persons have a 
much better memory of dates than others. I would 
have a class remember a few important dates first, 
and gradually add to them until I had all the dates 
of importance. The teacher should write on the 
board two columns of dates; one in large characters 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 145 

the otlier in small. Among the large characters he 
may put 1492, 1565, 1607, 1620, 1754, 1776, etc. The 
events connected with these dates may be first stud- 
ied, each one made a lesson. As the lesser points are 
brought out the dates may be placed in the second 
column. Reviews should be had daily until each 
member of the class can relate the event connected 
with the dates in the first column; then the dates in 
the second column should be reviewed until they are 
learned. A few only may be placed in the second 
column, and a third column of still lesser dates be 
made. The point is to learn the most important 
first, and then those of less importance, and so on as 
many as are likely to be permanently remembered. 

Instead of keeping a class a whole term on a few 
pages of the history of the United States, in order to 
learn all the minutiae, I would take them through the 
book and let them gather what they could, taking 
care that it would be the prominent facts first, and 
then as much more as possible. But I would not be 
understood as taking them through the history as 
through a chronological table, getting only the dry 
bones, but I would clothe these with living, breathing 
flesh as I went along. A certain amount of detail is 
necessary to illustrate and make an important fact 
interesting, yet the detail should be used to help fix 
the main fact in the mind. To make my point 
plainer, suppose the subject to be the French and In- 
dian wars. Wow, there were numerous battles and 
skirmishes and treaties, but before I would expect a 
class to remember them all I would have them read 
10 



146 METHODS OF TEACHING 

an interesting account of Braddock's defeat and the 
fall of Quebec, the two most prominent events in all 
those wars. I would have them know something of 
the character and conduct of Braddock, the discipline 
of British soldiers, the mode of fighting among the 
Indians, the locality of the battle, the career of the 
young Washington, etc., and in the other case the 
death of "Wolfe and Montcalm and all the circum- 
stances connected with it, the nature of the battle- 
ground, etc. Two lessons might be given which 
would make a more permanent impression, and two 
dates learned which would be longer remembered 
than if a dozen lessons had been made of this subject 
and all the dates and minor details of these wars 
committed to memory. 

To make the study interesting, and for variety, the 
teacher should gather together, for the purpose of 
using in his class, a number of the characteristic say- 
ings of historical characters, as "Don't give up the 
ship ; " " We have met the enemy and they are ours ; '^ 
"A little more grape, Capt. Bragg;" "We will fight 
it out on this line if it takes all summer," etc. ; also 
some of the popular appellations of great men, as 
"Eough and Ready," "Sage of Monticello," "The 
American Pathfinder," etc., and such terms as "Filli- 
busters," "Know l^othings," " G-rangers." He can 
make use of this list in review lessons, and it will 
add much to the interest of the recitation. By use 
of judicious questions the teacher can, in reviewing, 
fix many points of interest. Questions somewhat as 
follows should be asked : Who was Roger Williams? 
Pocahontas? Sir Walter Raleigh ? Balboa? Major 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 147 

Andre? etc. "What men figured prominently in the 
war of 1812? What battle was fought after peace 
was declared between the two countries ? What led 
to the settlement of California ? What were the ac- 
quisitions of territory to the United States? Who 
was President during the war of 1812 ? During the 
Mexican war ? What was the Missouri Compromise ? 
etc. A few such questions should be asked for re- 
view every day. 

Pupils who are sufficiently advanced and have time 
from other studies, should be encouraged to write 
short sketches on historical subjects. I would not 
impose it as a duty, but request it and encourage any 
inclination the pupil may show in that direction. 
They may be encouraged also to relate incidents 
which they may have read in other works. 

There is no branch of learning in which there is 
such susceptibility of illustration by the introduction 
of collateral and explanatory matter. If the teacher 
be well read he can enliven each recitation by re- 
lating briefly some incident or making some explana- 
tion not found in the text-books. 

The study of Geography should go hand in hand 
with History. Free use of the map and globe should 
be made to illustrate the lessons. Pupils should be 
encouraged to read fragments of History, such as 
Abbott's Histories, some of the more interesting bi- 
ographies of great men, and many of the historical 
works written especially for the young. The teacher 
should point out certain such works which may be 
accessible to his pupils. 

Attention should be paid to the progress and devel- 



148 METHODS OF TEACHING 

opment of science, art and literature among the peo- 
ple ; and in reviews scientific men, inventors, artists, 
poets and authors should be grouped according to 
their respective epochs. The dates of great inven- 
tions and discoveries and their effects on civilization 
should be remembered, as well as the rise and fall of 
dynasties or the record of battles and political in- 
trigues. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Anatomy, teaching the structure of our bodies ; 
Physiology, the functions of the various organs; and 
Hygiene, the application of this knowledge to the 
maintaining of a sound mind in a sound body, are 
subjects usually included under the term Physiology, 
and are required by law, in many of the States, to be 
taught in common schools, or rather the teacher i§ 
required to be prepared to teach them. It is emi- 
nently proper that this subject should be taught in 
country schools. 

ISTotwithstanding the fact that an out-door life of 
labor is more conducive to health and longevity than 
a sedentary in-door life, country people need the 
knowledge, which, if properly applied, will conserve 
their health and bodily vigor. Farmers do not al- 
ways obey the laws of health in regard to diet and 
exercise, and farmers' children need instruction on 
this point as well as in regard to keeping accounts 
or any other branch taught in schools. 

The teacher will find that the same methods of 
teaching which are applicable in Geography, Gram- 
mar and History can be successfully applied in this 
branch. The topic method should prevail, and pupils 

(149) 



150 METHODS OF TEACHING 

should be encouraged to outline and classify the sub- 
jects treated in the text-book. A class can be per- 
haps more successfully conducted if each pupil has a 
difterent author in his hands than if they all had the 
same. The truly alive teacher will iind no difficulty 
in presenting the subject and conducting a recitation, 
but questions , of more importance are these : What 
parts shall be studied, and where shall the class com- 
mence? The subject is too deep to be studied in de- 
tail by pupils of a country school. Only the more 
important general principles should be taught, and 
these well impressed upon their minds. The following 
are some of the points which the teacher should se- 
lect and the order in which they should be presented : 

I. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY. 

1. Bones. 

Let the class make out an outline of the bones, 
naming every bone in the body under the main divis- 
ions of Head, Trunk and Extremities, then proceed 
to learn the names of a few of the more important 
bones first; those of less importance may be learned 
incidentally by reviews and class drills. 'Next give 
a lesson or two on the structure and use of the bones 
and their importance in a hygienic sense, as, for exam- 
ple, the importance of recognizing the fact that chil- 
dren's bones are softer and contain less mineral mat- 
ter, and the bones of old persons are in the opposite 
conditions, and make the application as regards man- 
aging children to prevent bow legs, spinal deformities, 
etc., and care to prevent accidents causing fracture in 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 151 

elderly persons. Three or four lessons will thus bring 
out all the more important matters relating to the 
boneSo By frequent reviews, after the pupil has ad- 
vanced to other subjects, these important facts will be 
fixed in their memories and seen in their relations to 
other facts of the science. You must proceed ac- 
cording to the intellectual calibre of your pupils. If 
they are capable of grasping the more abstruse parts, 
lead them gradually into them ; if not, teach what 
they can comprehend and teach that well. 

2. Muscles. 

Make outlines as with the bones, naming those 
muscles usually given in school text«-books, and 
memorizing a few of the more important. The 
teacher may give hints in regard to the outline, sug- 
gesting that the structure, arrangement, kinds and 
use of muscles form a part of the outline. Several 
lessons are then to be made on these points. 

3. The Skin. 

A lesson or two on this subject, discussing its struct- 
ure and use, including hair and nails, mucous mem- 
brane and teeth, the three latter being modifications 
of the epidermis, or outer skin. The functions of 
the skin will be better understood after the subject 
of respiration, digestion and circulation are studied. 

The whole subject of the framework of the body 
may now be reviewed by outlines and general ques- 
tions and discussions. 



152 METHODS OF TEACHING 

II. VITAL PROCESSES. 

1. Digestion. 

Make out outlines of the organs of digestion, in- 
cluding teeth, tongue, salivary glands, ossophaguSy 
stomach, intestinal canal, pancreas and liver. De- 
scribe these parts in a general manner, and next out- 
line and describe the processes of digestion, as mas- 
tication, insalivation, deglutition, chymification, chy- 
lification, with the fluids necessary to perform these 
processes, as saliva, gastric juice, bile and pancreatic 
fluid. Tell what processes are mechanical and what 
chemico-vital. A number of lessons should be made 
of the subject of digestion, as it is of great import- 
ance. Give a lesson on the hygiene of digestion in, 
relation to manner and matter of diet. 

2. Circulation. 

Outline organs, as arteries, veins, capillaries, hearty 
lymphatics, with a discussion of the processes and re- 
sults. Drill particularly in tracing the course of the 
blood in the round of the circulation. Draw diagram 
on blackboard to illustrate. 

3. Respiration. - 

Outline and discuss organs, as trachea, bronchial 
tubes, lungs, air cells, capillaries, with processes and 
results, as elimination of impurities and production 
of pure blood for vital purposes. Show the relation 
between the lungs and skin in the processes of excre- 
tion. Explain the philosophy of "taking cold" and 
the necessity of good ventilation. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 153 

Review the whole subject of vital processes and 
dwell on the hygiene of digestion, as it may now be 
better understood after a discussion of circulation and 
respiration. A general review from the beginning 
may now be given, asking questions which will make 
pupils think and reason, and drill on the more im- 
portant parts to fix them in the memory. 

III. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The structure, functions and hygiene of the ner- 
vous system should be studied by outlines, making 
the grand divisions of cerebro-spinal and sympathetic 
systems, also bringing in the terms sensory and 
motor nerves. I need not explain here further, as 
the teacher who has conducted a class properly thus 
far will understand how to present this subject. 

II. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

The eye and ear should be studied in considerable 
detail, paying particular attention to the hygiene of 
these organs. A little knowledge of the sciences of 
optics and acoustics would be of benefit to the teacher 
Let him study these subjects in some work on natural 
philosophy, and he will be better able to explain the 
functions of these organs. 

If the class is capable of going farther during one 
term, there are many other points which may be taken 
up and discussed, but first let a thorough investiga- 
tion of the points I have noted be made. I insist on 
frequent reviews. The teacher, at least, should liave 
more than one text-book, and it would be well if the 



154 METHODS OF TEACHING 

class had different authors also. There are some very 
good text-books on the subject designed for common 
schools. Among them may be mentioned Steeles' 
and Cutter's. Some of the review questions in 
*' Steele's Fourteen Weeks " are valuable aids to the 
teacher. If his class has not that book he should use 
some of those questions by writing them on the board 
for review lessons. The teacher should use all possi- 
ble aids in illustrating the anatomy of important or- 
gans. It is possible to procure specimens from ani- 
mals which will illustrate many points in the human 
system. The eye of a hog is about the same in size 
and structure as the human eye, and specimens should 
be procured and dissected before the class. If one is 
boiled it will bear dissection better, but it should be 
shown also in a natural state. The larynx of a hog 
will also illustrate the human larynx, and give a much 
clearer idea than pictures or models. In fact nearly 
all the internal organs of the hog are similar in size 
and appearance to those of the human being. The 
heart, lungs and stomach, even, of a hog may be ex- 
hibited to illustrate these parts in the human body. 
Bones of animals may be procured and sawn across 
to show the structure. Five cents worth of sulphuric 
acid, to be had at any drug store, will, if diluted, dis- 
solve the earthy parts of bone, leaving the animal 
parts intact. A bone may be burned in the stove, 
destroying the animal part and leaving the earthy 
part. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

AL&EBRA AND THE HIGHER MATHEMATICS, 

The science of Algebra is taught regularly in many 
of our country schools, and some portions of the 
Higher Mathematics, as Geometry, Trigonometry, 
Astronomy, etc., should be taught incidentally in 
connection with other branches and occasionally by 
regular lessons, although without using a regular 
text-book. 

Algebra is a method of solving mathematical prob- 
lems and representing quantities by means of sym- 
bols. It is an indispensable aid in all the higher 
mathematical branches. It is sometimes called Gen- 
eral Arithmetic, and as an aid to Arithmetic it is of 
great value. It should be studied before Arithmetic 
is finished. It frequently happens that the teacher 
finds an example in Arithmetic which will at first 
puzzle him, and very often a knowledge of Algebra 
will help him out of the difiiculty. He may solve 
the example by Algebra, and from this get an arith- 
metical solution. As merely an aid to the teacher, 
even if he is never required to teach it, it is valuable. 

It will appear evident that Algebra should be taught 
very much the same as Aritlimetico I will therefore 
only ofl'er a few suggestions : 

155) 



156 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

There are a certain number of definitions which 
must be learned before much progress can be made, 
but I would not advise a study of them alone. The 
teacher should first develop the algebraic idea of rep- 
resenting quantities by symbols. Take, for example,, 
the sum of 24 and 32. Instead of adding the num- 
bers, as in Arithmetic, you will say, " we will repre- 
sent the number 24 by a, and the number 32 by b, 
and the operation will then stand «.-{-6." Some of 
the simple examples in Arithmetic should be pre- 
sented and solved algebraically. For instance, sucb 
problems as the following : 

" A travels a certain distance one day and twice as 
far the next. In the two days he travels 36 miles; 
how far does he travel each day ? " 

A number of such examples should be solved hy 
the pupils before definitions should be learned. A 
few definitions only are necessary at first ; the others 
to be learned as the necessity arises for their use. 

]S"umerous examples, like the following, may be 
given while the pupil is learning the necessary defin- 
itions : 

" What is the value of c-\-d — b, c being equal to 5, 
c? to 10 and 6 to 3 ? " 

As soon as the pupil is somewhat familiar with al- 
gebraic forms of expression, the operations of addi- 
tion, subtraction, multiplication and division of alge- 
braic quantities should be taught, giving numerous 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 157 

examples for practice, and requiring pupils to be par- 
ticular in the use of signs. 

Be sure that all pupils have the proper conception 
of adding and subtracting algebraic quantities and 
of the idea that letters may represent any quantity. 
"With these facts well impressed and clearly under- 
stood, there will be no difficulty in conducting a class 
successfully through any text-book on the science, if 
the teacher has profited by the hints on teaching 
Arithmetic. 

I have already spoken of some of the applications 
of the higher mathematics in the chapter on Arith- 
metic. With advanced pupils in Algebra or Arith- 
metic a slight knowledge of Geometry and Trigo- 
nometry may be taught if the teacher has prepared 
himself by the study of these branches. For exam- 
ple, even very young pupils can be taught the mean- 
ing of many geometrical terms, as angle, plane, the 
different kinds of triangles, perpendicular, diagonal, 
parallel lines, parts of a circle, chords, polygons, 
prisms, etc., and advanced pupils in country schools 
should certainly be made familiar with these terms. 
Some of the simpler propositions may be demon- 
strated, or at least taught as facts. The blocks before 
spoken of (see p. 50), and which should be in every 
school-room, will aid in familiarizing pupils witi 
geometrical terms. The process of finding distances 
by similar triangles and some other parts of Trigo- 
nometry may be taught. School boys are sometimes 
curious to know how astronomers can tell the distance 
of the sun from the earth. This may be made plain 
to them by a simple calculation. For a solution of 



158 METHODS OF TEACHING 

this problem, see April number, 1879, of E'ormal 
Teacher. Many of the facts of mathematical Geog- 
raphy may also be made plainer by a knowledge of 
geometrical forms and principles, 

I will close this chapter by saying, do not be bound 
within the narrow limits of the text-book your class 
is using, but wherever you can fix a fact or draw out 
a demonstration in any useful line of investigation 
do so, but do not waste time in trying to demonstrate 
what your pupils are not old enough, or have not the 
intellectual power to understand; and above all 
things do not try to demonstrate anything you do not 
yourself understand. If you are asked a question, or 
to explain something of which you are ignorant, do 
not pretend to know or put them ofi' with an excuse, 
but frankly acknowledge your ignorance; then study 
on that point until you have mastered it, if it be pos- 
sible. 



CHAPTER IXo 

THE NATURAL SCIENCES. 

Under this head I wish to discuss the teaching of 
Botany, Geology, ISTatural Philosophy, Chemistry and 
Zoology in country schools. I think I hear some one 
saying, " What ! do you propose that all these branches 
be taught in our common country schools ? " I an- 
swer such a person by saying, '-Yes; not regularly, 
not necessarily with text-books, but incidentally and 
occasionally as a means of culture and for the pur- 
pose of keeping up interest, enthusiasm, assisting in 
governing, and with the hope that some good seeds 
may be sown which will find proper soil and receive 
a start which may culminate in a future Agassiz or 
Linnseus." "But teachers are not generally prepared 
to teach such subjects. They have no knowledge of 
them themselves." Then they should go to work and 
inform themselves. 

Children will often take a deep interest in collect- 
ing specimens and exhibit a strong desire to know 
something about them. There is much difference in 
neighborhoods in this respect. There are some back- 
woods communities where anything of the kind 
would be looked upon as the utmost degree of fool- 
ishness, and the people would be ready to call the 

(159) 



160 METHODS OP TEACHING 

teaclier who would attempt anything of the kind a 
lunatic. The teacher, then, must first feel the public 
pulse, and beware how he carries innovations into the 
school-room. Wherever anything of the kind is en- 
tirely new the teacher must proceed with caution, and 
make gradual advances until he captures the fort. 

1. Let us see what the teacher may do in the line 
of botanical teaching. If it is in the spring, summer 
or fall, he may procure a few leaves of diiFerent 
kinds, and either at general exercise, or during the 
five minutes intervals of rest, call the attention of 
the school to them. Show them that in one sense 
they are all alike, and in another all difterent; that 
is, they all have a midrib and branching veins. You 
may draw this fact out by asking questions. You 
may ask them in what respect they are all alike. 
They will probably say they are all green. Then you 
may ask them if any of them ever saw a leaf that 
was not green. They will probably answer, no. You 
may tell them that nearly all leaves are green, but 
there are some leaves that are colored, or partly so. 
Tell them to ask their parents if they ever saw a leaf 
that was not green when young and growing. You 
may call for a report the next day. Ask them in 
what respect the leaves are diflerent. They will an- 
swer at once that they are of difierent shapes. You 
may now close the exercise for this time by telling 
them that to-morrow you want to see how many 
different shaped leaves each one can bring. You may 
make a collection of leaves. Dry them by laying 
between folds of paper. If pupils take an interest 
in making a collection (which I am sure they will, 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLSo 161 

many of them at least), you may give a number of 
lessons on the leaf, classifying them according to their 
shape. An outline may be written on the black- 
board, and though it will bring in some new words 
with which the pupils are not familiar, the words are 
not difficult of comprehension when explained; be- 
sides you need not use the technical terra when a 
common word will answer. The words of the out- 
line can be used as a spelling lesson for the next day. 
I give below a specimen of an outline which may be 
made out on the subject of leaves: 

Leaves. 

1. Parts. 

1. Blade. 

1. Midrib. 

2. Veins. 

2. Foot stalk or leaf stalk. 

2. Forms. 

H, 1. As to general outline. 

1. Linear. 

2. Lance-shaped. 

3. Oblong. 

4. Elliptical. 

5. Oval. 

6. Ovate. 

7. Orbicular or rotund. 

8. Oblanceolate. 

9. Wedge-sbaped. 

10. Spoon-shaped. 

11. Obovate. 

11 



162 METHODS OF TEACHING 

2. As to base. 

1. Heart-shaped. 

2. Kidney-shaped. 

3. Eared. 

4. Arrow-shaped. 

5. Halberd-shaped. 

6. Shield-shaped. 

3. As to Apex. ♦ 

1. Pointed. 

2. Acute. 

3. Obtuse. 

4. Truncate. 

5. Retuse. 

6. Notched. 

7. Obcordate. 

8. Tooth-shaped. 

9. Mucronate. 

10. Bristle-pointed. 

4. As to particular outline. 

1. Entire. 

2. Saw-toothed. 

3. Toothed. 

4. Scalloped. 

6. Wavy. * 

6. Sinuate. 

7. Cut or jaggedo 

8. Lobed. 

9. Cleft. 

10. Parted. 

11. Divided. 

12. Simple. 

13. Compound. 

1. Pinnate. 

2. Palmate. 

A couple of weeks may be profitably and pleasantly 
spent studying the subject of leaves in this way, us- 
ing no more than five minutes each day. It will be 
easy enough to collect specimens to represent nearly 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 163 

all the above forms of leaves, and as the pupils do 
this work at noons and recesses and mornings and 
evenings, but little time is consumed, much interest 
can be awakened, some knowledge imparted, and, 
without a doubt, some dormant mind will be aroused 
and the perceptive faculties cultivated. 

If in winter, a collection of the different kinds of 
wood may be made by the pupils. This may be made 
very interesting. The teacher should specify the size 
and shape of the blocks. They should be cut so as 
to show the grain of the wood, both longitudinal and 
transverse, with one side and one end planed or 
polished. They should then be correctly and plainly 
labelled and kept as a part of the property of the 
school. Those kinds which are native of the country 
should be so designated, and those which are foreign. 
In this way a complete collection of all the native 
woods of the locality and many of foreign species 
may be made, and will be a collection of value when 
complete. The teacher may give some very interest- 
ing lectures on the uses, strength, etc., of woods. 
The pupils may be asked to name some of the uses 
of wood, what kinds of wood are valuable for certain 
purposes, etc. The teacher may procure specimens 
of foreign woods, as lignumvitse, logwood, ebony, 
etc., and speak of their uses in the arts and their 
value in a commercial sense. 

There is not a locality in the United States where 
such exercises as the above can not be made practical, 
a statement which can not be made in regard to Geo- 
logical teaching. The live teacher may find other 
practical and profitable exercises touching the science 



164 METHODS OF TEACHING 

of Botany, but these, it is hoped, are sufficient as 
hints. 

2. In many localities Geology may be made a prof- 
itable stud}', and a collection of specimens of fostsils 
and minerals be made. There are localities where 
fossils are numerous, and there are but few places 
where there are not different kinds of rocks. Let a col- 
lection be commenced and extended as far as possible, 
even if the locality is poor in specimens. The teacher 
should endeavor to inform himself on the subject of 
Geology, that he may be able to answer the numerous 
queries which may be put to him in regard to rocks, 
minerals and fossils. Interesting short lectures may 
be given upon rocks, ores, fossils, etc. Let the 
teacher prepare himself by reading and study for a 
short talk about some of these subjects. I have not 
space to suggest what he may say, but can only, in a 
general way, hint that he endeavor to make these 
talks interesting by talking about what the pupils 
seem to take an interest in. The grand object is to 
make up mind. When a thirst for knowledge is once 
induced it is easy to supply the demand. By a few 
judicious questions and statements, the teacher will 
find out what he can talk about with the greatest de- 
gree of success. The teacher should, if possible, pro- 
cure specimens of the different kinds of coal, of iron, 
lead, zinc and copper ores, of gold and silver-bearing 
quartz, of granite, marble, sand-stone, chalk, slate, 
etc. In localities where there are no such things, 
they will be a source of interest to the whole school 
and to Geography classes in particular. A Geologi- 
cal collection of such representative specimens should 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 165 

form a part of the teacher's stock in trade. He may 
procure them in his travels and through the medium 
of friends and by exchange with others interested in 
the same subjects. 

3. Some very interesting experiments in I^atural 
Philosophy and Chemistry may be performed by the 
teacher, and the principles made plain to pupils. In 
searching a work on these subjects you will 'find many 
experiments described which, with a little modifica- 
tion, you may perform with little or no cost for appa- 
ratus or material. Much of the apparatus for per- 
forming experiments in Natural Philosophy and 
Ohemistry may be dev.ised by any teacher who has 
ordinary ingenuity. These subjects will not, perhaps, 
be so well adapted to the whole school as Botany and 
Geology, but with classes in Physiology and advanced 
Geography, many experiments may be performed and 
principles illustrated which will prove of great use in 
widening their field of knowledge and stimulating 
them to independent investigation and research, I 
remember, when quite a small boy, I read " Parker's 
Philosophy" and performed several of the experi- 
ments there described without ever consulting any 
one. I found a crooked stem of a poke-weed, and 
pushing out the pith, made a syphon, and got a scold- 
in.g for running the water out of my mother's rain- 
water barrel. Boys frequently exhibit such tenden- 
cies at a very early age. A horse-shoe magnet may 
be purchased for a few cents, and many wonderful 
experiments performed with it, illustrating the prop- 
erties of that mysterious agent, electricity. If some 
common bituminous coal be reduced to a powder and 



166 METHODS OF TEACHING 

heated in the bowl of a clay tobacco pipe, by cover- 
ing with moistened clay, the gas which is developed 
may be burned at the end of the pipe stem. It is the 
common illuminating gas which lights our cities. If 
a little lump of green vitriol be dropped into a glass of 
clear water it will dissolve, and the solution will be 
clear. Now, if a solution of tannic acid be made, 
either by dropping a verj^ small quantity into another 
glass of water, or a few drops of tea from oak bark 
be added to the water, and th^e contents of one glass 
be mixed with the contents of the other, the two pre- 
viously clear solutions will turn instantly black as ink. 
Here is an illustration of a chemical change. I will 
give another just as simple. Drop a small particle 
of starch in a glass of hot water. Into another glass 
put a drop of tincture of iodine. The clear liquids, 
when mixed, will assume a beautiful blue color. 
Here is one of a different character : Mix a teaspoon- 
ful of chlorate of potash with a similar quantity of 
sugar; lay on a board and let fall a single drop of 
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) upon it. The mass will 
take lire and burn with a beautiful white flame and 
with great rapidity. A volcano may be illustrated 
with this material. Raise a pile of earth on a wide 
board, and in the center place a little of this mate- 
rial wrapped in paper, arranging a paper tube so as 
to reach the apex of the volcano and communicate 
with the material inside. Let fall a drop of the acid 
through this tube, and instantly the volcano will 
have an eruption, belching forth fire and smoke. 
Although the teacher may not be able to explain the 
exact nature of these chemical changes, the purpose 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 167 

is served as well. It is only necessary to show that 
a new and different substance is produced by a chem- 
ical reaction. The pupil may be referred to the pro- 
cess of making soap from fats and alkalies as an illus- 
tration of a chemical change producing a new sub- 
stance. 

I have had for a number of years in contemplation 
a small book of easy experiments in chemistry and 
philosophy, and part of the manuscript is already 
prepared. It would contain a vast number of sim- 
ple and easy experiments illustrating important 
points. I have placed it in the hands of other par- 
ties, and no doubt it will be finished and issued from 
the press at no distant day. Such a work will, I 
have no doubt, be of immense value to the teacher, 
both as an aid to the study of these sciences, and as 
a valuable help in the school-room. 

4. A few words in regard to the teaching of Natu- 
ral History in the country school. Here is a wide 
field for youth to investigate, but the country teacher 
will not find it so available as the forefiroins: sciences. 
Specimens can not be collected unless it be in the de- 
partment of insects. If any teacher's taste incline in 
that direction perhaps he may make this branch a 
profitable one. Children love to hear and read about 
animals. Stories of animal sagacity may be related, 
and questions asked about the animals of different 
countries, their habits, uses, etc. Pupils may be told, 
for example, of the reindeer, an animal which fur- 
nishes food, drink, clothing, shelter and implements 
for a certain class of people ; of some of the articles 
of commerce which are produced from animals, as 



168 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ivory, bone, whalebone, oil, leather, horn, glue, fars, 
wool, feathers, etc.; of the animals peculiar to differ- 
ent parts of the world, etc. Some of these points 
belong to Geograph}^, but may be taught to the whole 
school as general exercises. 



CHAPTEE X. 

MORALS AND MANNERS. 

A grave responsibility rests upon the teacher. He 
should do vastly more than the law requires of him or 
his employers expect of him. Instructing children 
in the branches treated of in text-books is not the 
onlv teaching a teacher should do. There is some- 
thins: hisrher and nobler for him to do. He must 

O CD 

teach lessons in morals and manners, the substratum 
on which a free government rests. Let me here make 
an extract from Prof. Huxley's address before the 
Johns Hopkins University: 

" Size'is not grandeur, and territory does not make 
a nation. The great issue about which hangs a true 
subli-mity, and the terror of overhanging fate is, what 
are you going to with all these things? What is to 
be the end to which these are to be the means ? You 
are making a novel experiment in politics on the 
greatest scale which the world has yet seen. Forty 
millions at your first centenary! It is reasonably to 
be expected that at the second, these States will be 
occupied by two hundred millions of English speak- 
ing people spread over an area as large as that of 
Europe, and with climates and interests as diverse as 
those of Spain and Scandinavia, England and Russia. 

(169) 



170 METHODS OF TEACHING 

You and your descendants have to ascertain whether 
this great mass will hold together under the forms of 
a republic and the despotic reality of universal suf- 
frage; whether State rights will hold out against cen- 
tralization without separation ; whether centralization 
will get the better without actual or disguised mon- 
archy; whether shifting corruption is better than a 
permanent bureaucracy; and as population thickens 
in your cities and the pressure of want is felt, the 
gaunt spectre of pauperism will stalk among you and 
communism and socialism will claim to be heard. 
Truly America has a great future before her; great 
in toil, in care and in responsibility ; great in true 
glory, if she be guided in wisdom and righteousness ; 
great in shame, if she fail. I can not understand why 
other nations should envy you, or be blind to the fact 
that it is for the highest interest of mankind that you 
should succeed; hut the one condition of success, your sole 
safeguard, is the moral worth and intellectual clearness of 
the individual citizen. Education can not give these, but 
it may cherish them and bring them to the front in 
whatever station of society they are to be found, and 
the universities ought to be and may be the fortresses 
of the higher life of the nation." 

I would agree with Huxle}^ in all but the last sen- 
tence. Education can give moral ivorth and intellect- 
ual clearness, and the common schools, and especially 
the country district schools, "ought to be and may be 
the fortresses of the higher life of the nation." How 
many of our great men were educated in our country 
schools? Many received their first impulses in some 
log school-house in the back-woods. The country 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 171 

school teacher has given an impetus to the intellect- 
ual development of many a statesman and man of 
worth to the nation. He has made many a man capa- 
ble of casting an intelligent ballot, and has he not in- 
creased the moral worth of many a citizen of this 
great republic ? Much more can he do if guided by 
right motives and prompted to greater zeal by a true 
understanding of the responsibility of his position 
and a real love for the profession. Hear what one 
of our greatest statesmen, Daniel Webster, said about 
the common school: "Many moral tales and in- 
structive and well contrived fables, always- so alluring 
to children, learned by heart in these schools, are still 
perfectly preserved in my memory. ^ * * J^ ^y 
opinion, the instruction communicated in the free 
schools of N"ew England has a direct effect for good 
on the morals of youth. It represses vicious inclina- 
tions, it inspires love of character and it awakens 
honorable aspirations." 

The teacher should endeavor by every means in his 
power to instill into his pupils habits which will 
make them good citizens of a free republic. The fol- 
lowing outline will indicate the order in which I pro- 
pose a very brief notice of some of the points which 
teachers should take pains to teach, both by precept 
and example : 



172 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

1. Morals. 

1. Veracity. 

1. Avoid Lying. 

2. Avoid Deception. 

2. Honesty. 

1. Avoid Theft. 

2. Avoid Cheating. 

3. Industry. 

1. At Study. 

2. At Work. 

4. Economy. 

1. Save Property. 

2. Save Time. 

5. Promptness and Regularity. 

1. Regular in Attendance. 

2. Prompt at Recitations. 

3. Prompt in the Affairs of Life. 

2. Manners. 

1. Politeness. 

1. To Strangers. 

2. To Teacher. 

3. To Companions. 

2. Respect. 

L For Self. 

2. For Rights, Property and Persons of Others. 

3. Kindness. 

1. To Human Beings. 

2. To Animals. 

4. Generosity. 

1. In Yielding Rights and Privileges. 

2. In Giving and Sharing Property. 

5. Reverence. 

1. For God. 

2. For Parents. 

3. For Teachers. 

4. For Age. 

6. Purity of Speech. 

1. Avoid Swearing. 

2. Avoid Impure Language. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 173 

I. MORALS. 

1, Veracity. — -I need not enlarge on the necessity 
of inculcatiDg in the young' a sincere love of truth. 
Whenever possible the teacher should point out the 
evil eflrects of lying and deception in a community. 
Gossiping and tale-bearing are very nearly akin to 
lynig. Children should be taught this, and discour- 
aged in any tendency exhibited in this direction. 
Something has happened on the play-ground, and 
some one comes and tells the teacher. Here is an 
opportunity to speak about this matter. Children 
should be taught that when they are called upon indi- 
vidually for evidence in regard to offenses committed 
they should respond with the "truth, the whole truth, 
and nothing but the truth," but that a spirit of tattling 
and meddling should always be avoided. They 
should be taught that a person can act a lie as well 
as speak it, and that all double dealing and decep- 
tion should be abhorred. The teacher can teach much 
more by example. He should always be just what 
he appears to be, and make no promises which he 
does not intend to perform. Many teachers teach 
deception by not performing what they promise. If 
it happens that he has made a promise he is unable 
to perform he should be quick to state his reasons. 
and frankly acknowledge an error if he commits 
one. 

2. Honesty. — I fear that in this free republic few 
men and women are strictly honest. I do not mean 
that they all steal, but humbugging and cheating are 
such common things that few are entirely innocent. 



174 METHODS OF TEACHING 

I have, however, taught schools where it was not safe 
to leave a pencil or knife on the table and leave the 
room, but it was because there was one thief in the 
school; I could not accuse the school of being dishon- 
est. But children need cautioning about taking little 
things which they might not regard as stealing. They 
should be shown how taking an apple may lead to 
taking a knife, and this to something of more value, 
and so on until they land in the penitentiary. I would 
not, however, speak very often about stealing, cer- 
tainly not at all unless something occurred to give 
occasion to speak about it, for it is never good to an- 
ticipate the commission of a crime by making men- 
tion of it. I say anticipate it, for I believe that often 
the mere calling of a crime to mind will prompt its 
commission. I have not space here to discuss this 
fact, but it is a fact in human nature. Cheating is 
sometimes practiced in games of childhood. The 
teacher should take pains to check the tendency at 
once, for a child who will cheat in a game is likely to 
cheat in business when a man. Honesty should be 
taught, not simply because it is the best policy, but 
because it is one of the noblest traits of human 
character. 

3. Industry. — I have classed industry as a moral 
trait, for no man can be a moral man and at the same 
time an idler. It lies at the foundation of individual 
and national life, co-ordinate with ho.nesty and veraci- 
ty. Habits of industr}^ must be taught in school as 
well as in the family. The teacher can do much towards 
fostering this trait by furnishing all with employment 
in the school-room and by occasionally prompting the 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 175 

idle-inclined pupils. This prompting must not be 
done in a scolding manner, but pleasantly, by direct- 
ing them towards an example to be solved, a point to 
be noticed in the lesson, a paragraph to be read over, 
a written exercise to be attended to, etc. Occasion 
should be taken to point out the benefits of industry 
in the world. In geography classes, when lessons are 
had on the productions of various countries, call at- 
tention to the fact that the .wealth and beauty of a 
country depend on the industry of its inhabitants; the 
fine cities, buildings, works of art, etc., are the results 
of industry. In general exercises in natural science, 
the uses of certain articles, as iron, wood, etc., should 
be shown to be the result of the industry of man. 
Show that these substances in a state of nature would 
be of little or no use to man. Call attention to the 
fact that the farmers who are the most wealthy are 
generally so from industry and economy. These two 
traits can not, indeed, be separated. 

4. Economy. — I come, naturally, to speak oi this 
also as a moral trait. From the days when the Prod- 
igal Son wasted his substance in riotous living, and 
was at last obliged to return to an economical parent 
for support, to the present day, those individuals who 
have practiced economy have stood foremost in the 
world's history as the wise ones who provide for the 
future by taking care of the present, and to whom the 
prodigal and wasteful must come at last begging. It 
is to be hoped that the financial depression which this 
country has just passed through will teach lessons 
of economy that will benefit the adults of the present 
generation at least. But the youth of our schools 



176 METHODS OF TEACHING 

should receive instruction in this branch, that they 
may not have to learn by dear experience in the future 
what many of us are learning to-day. About every 
fifteen years there is a financial crash in this countr}^ 
and it is caused solely by the extravagance and waste- 
fulness of the inhabitants. 

Pupils should be taught economy in the use of prop- 
erty and in the use of time. When books are heed- 
lessly torn or soiled, or school property destroyed the 
teacher will have occasion to preach a lesson of econ- 
omy in the use of property. A programme of study 
and recitation economizes time, and the pupils should 
be made to see this and be prompted to systemize their 
study that they may save time. Habits of economy 
thus impressed in youth will often have great effect 
on character in after life. Pupils trained to study by 
plan, will be apt to work and study by system when 
they enter the active arena of life. 

5. Promptness and Regularity. — An other moral trait 
which should be instilled into youth at an early age. 
Regular attendance at school should be shown as 
highly necessary to secure the benefits of school. 
The teacher should talk to parents on this subject and 
show them that it would be to their own interest to 
send their children regularly to school. If they are 
•to keep their children at home half the time, that 
time should be consecutively and not a day now and 
then. Train them to be prompt to come in when the 
bell rings, prompt to come to the recitation, prompt 
to answer when called upon to recite. Pupils who are 
in the habit of straggling when the bell rings should 
be reminded of the fact by being detained a few min- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 177 

«tes after the others are dismissed. They can see the 
justice of this punishment, for if they persist in dis- 
turbing the order of the school by coming in hite and 
try to gain a few moments for play at the expense of 
the rest of the school, they should be compelled to 
make up this time while those who have been prompt 
are permitted to play. 

II. MANNERS. 

It is often remarked that the youth of the present 
day are not so polite and do not show that respect 
for superiors which characterized the youth of the pre- 
ceding generation. "It was not so when I was 
young," is an expression often upon the lips of 
elderly persons. It is true, also, that the American 
people are more lacking in these qualities than the 
Old World- inhabitants. This fact is owing to our 
free self-government, which fosters an independent 
spirit, the opposite of a fawning, cringing servility. 
While this independent spirit should not be crushed 
out, but rather encouraged, the j^outh should be 
taught true manpers, which consist in treating fel- 
low beings as having equal rights to "life, liberty and 
the pursuit of happiness." 

(See p. 53.) 

1. Politeness. — The teacher will find frequent oppor- 
tunity to give instruction on the duty of being polite to 
strangers, to teachers, and to companions. School cliil- 
dren frequently insult, or in various ways act impu- 
dently, towards strangers who may happen to puss the 
school-house during play hours. The teacher should 
12 



178 METHODS OF TEACHING 

try to check any sucli conduct at once, and take the 
opportunity to ^ve a lecture on politeness. Pupils fail 
Bometimes to speak in a respectful manner to the 
teacher or to each other. The teacher should call 
attention to these points, and remind the pupil of his 
want of politeness. The teacher should always speak 
and act politely toward pupils wherever he may meet 
them, thus teaching by example. 

2. Respect. — He who has no respect for himself 
will have none for others. There is a kind of pride 
which every one should possess. It is that pride 
which leads us to do unto others as we would have 
them do unto us. We should take pride in doing 
right, and thus have respect for ourselves by so con- 
ducting our manners as to give no offense to others. 
A respect for the rights, property and person of 
others is but obeying the Golden Rule, as well as 
obeying the laws of our land. Children should be 
taught by example and precept that others have rights 
which they should be bound to respect. School and 
other public property is too frequently the object of 
wanton destruction, or the subject for defacement 
with knives, pencils, etc. Will ■ you find a school 
house that has been built one year in all this country 
that does not bear the marks of a pencil or pocket- 
knife to a greater or less extent? Children should 
be taught that the property belongs to their parents, 
to every one in the district, and that they have no 
more right to deface or destroy it than if it were 
their neighbor's. They should be made acquainted 
with the laws of the State in regard to such defile- 
ment. Something must be done to check this spirit 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 179 

of vandalism, whicli seems to be gaining ground in 
this country, and I know of no better place to begin 
educating the people to better respect public property 
than in the district school. 

3. Kindness. —Boys are sometimes cruel to their 
playmates, especially to those younger and weaker 
than themselves. The teacher should not only see 
that no one under his charge is imposed upon, but he 
should take such opportunities to inculcate a spirit of 
kindness, not only towards human beings, but 
towards the brute creation. Teach them that kind- 
ness is a wonderful power; that it will conquer where 
fear will not. Show them what influence they may 
possess over others, and over animals, by being kind 
to them. 

4. Generosity. — It is unnecessary to enlarge upon 
this head. Examples will be easily found upon which 
to preach a lesson of generosity. You can not place 
a number of individuals together without it being 
necessary for the general welfare, that certain rights 
and privileges and property be yielded from one per- 
son to others. This quality is absolutely necessary to 
the existence of the social state. Even animals which 
are in the habit of living together yield to each other 
certain privileges and share each other's food. 

5. Reverence. — This is closely allied to respect. In 
fact, all the points in the outline are mutually depend- 
ent and blend into each other. But we should teach 
that there is a kind and benevolent Father who 
watches over us, and has the universe in charge, and 
who rules with justice and equity, but whose ways 
are sometimes to us mysterious, and that we, his chil- 



180 METHODS OF TEACHING 

dren and subjects of his sovereign will, should rever- 
ence and obey him. This is a quality of true man- 
ners, to reverence an aknowledged superior power. 
Our earthly parents claim also our reverence. They who 
have watched over us from infancy, and provided for 
our future welfare, certainly can claim a respect which 
amounts to reverence. The commandment, "Honor 
thy father and mother," if universally obeyed, would 
be a mighty factor in reforming the human race. As 
the teacher stands in loco parentis for the time being, 
he also demands a respect which may be called rever- 
ence. While the teacher should be on familiar terms 
with his pupils, he should ever maintain his dignity, 
and teach pupils that on account of his position he 
demands a certain degree of reverence. A teacher 
will have but little control over pupils who have not 
this respect, and a respect which may be called rever- 
ence, unless he has it by fear, and he can teach but 
little who governs by fear. Age demands a sort of 
reverence from youth, so long, at least, as age is 
respectful. 

6. Purity of Speech. — A gentleman may be known 
by his speech. The young of our day are, in many 
localities, very much addicted to the use of profanity. 
It is not strange, however; when they have teachers 
on every hand, when the parents and companions of 
the child constantly use profane language, it is not 
strange that the child learns it. It is the teacher's 
duty to teach them that it is wrong, that it is a viola- 
tion of the moral code, as well as a gross violation of 
etiquette. The country is also full of slang, and our 
youth, from infancy, almost, speak in the language of 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 181 

slang. "While it is true that there are some expressions, 
generally called slang, which are very forcible, and 
might be used occasionally to afford variety and em- 
phasis to our language, the constant use of such ex- 
pressions is but a sign of weakness, and they lose their 
force by being wrongfully applied and too frequently 
used. 

It is of little use to punish pupils for swearing. In 
nine cases out of ten, the offender is only confirmed 
in his habit. As soon as he gets out of hearing of 
the teacher he will very likely swear at him for having 
punished him. His only care will thenceforth be, not 
to keep from swearing, but to swear when the teacher 
does not hear it. The better way is to talk to the 
school about the habit and try to persuade them to 
abandon it. You take five minutes some day, and 
when you have the attention of the whole school, talk 
to them in this mamuer : Boys, I have noticed you 
often when playing, and :3ometimes I have heard some 
of you swear and use language which, it seems to me, 
you would not like to repeat now if I were to ask 
you. ISTow, I have no doubt you hear somebody swear 
almost every day of your lives, and you have learned 
when you hardly knew you were learning it, and per- 
haps some of you may think it is not wrong because 
many men swear. Did you never thick that men 
do wrong as well as boys, and if we would try to 
do what is right in the world it will not do to copy 
after men and do everything they do. Some men will 
steal horses and commit murder. Do you think it 
would be right for you to do so because these men 
do? It is very likely that these men learned to swear 



182 METHODS OF TEACHING 

when they were small boys like some of you, and it 
became such a habit that it was almost impossible to 
break it off. Kow, let me tell you to try and not be 
a slave to any habit. It is not hard to form habits 
now when you are young, and not very hard to break 
off bad habits, not half as hard as when you get 
older. ISTow, let me ask you to quit this habit just as 
soon as you can. You will forget and say bad words 
before you think, but you must think and be on your 
guard. IN'ow, how many will try to keep from swear- 
ing or using bad language? I mean those who have 
not been guilty as well as those who have. Hold up 
your hands, as many of you as will try to avoid it. 
ISTow, that you have promised to try, I hope you will 
try, and I do not expect to hear very much swearing 
again. 

This kind of moral suasion will have a much more 
salutary effect than any kind of punishment could 
have. 

In concluding this chapter, let me say with Milton, 
keep your pupils "stirred up with high hopes of liv- 
ing to be brave men and worthy patriots, dear to God 
and famous to all ages." 



CHAPTER XL 



MODEL RECITATIONS. 

ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY, 

Sudject of the lesson — State of Iowa. 
[Pupils take their places at the recitation seats at call 
of teacher or tap of bell.] 

Note. — Each pupil has a copy of the outline on p. — 

Teacher — John, can you step to the black-board and 
draw an outline map of Iowa, marking the principal 
points of interest? 

John — I will try. Sir. 

Teacher — Henry, you may tell us what you can about 
the position of Iowa. 

Henry — It lies between Latitude 40^'° and 43>^° N. 
and Longitude, 13° and 20° W. from \\/ ashington. It 
is bounded on the N. by Minnesota, on the E. by Illi- 
nois, on the south by Missouri, and on the W. by Ne- 
braska. 

[Several hands raised.] 

Teacher — Robert. 

Robert — It is bounded on the W. by Dakota also. 

Teacher — Very good. Any other criticisms or ad- 

(1S3) 



184 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ditions to what has been said on this point? [Mary's 
hand is raised.] What is it Mary? 

Mary — It lies between the great rivers, the Mississ- 
ippi and Missouri. 

Teacher — Very good. That fact, however, will come 
out under the topic. Rivers. Katy you may tell us 
something about its size. 

Katy — Its area is 55,045 square miles. 

Teacher — That is correct, but you could not proba- 
bly remember that number very long. Try and remem- 
ber the round number, 55000. But let us compare it 
with other states and countries. [Hands raised.] 
George. 

George — Georgia, Florida and Michigan are each a 
little larger. It is larger than either New York or 
Pennsylvania. 

[Teacher calls on WiUiam whose hand is raised.] 

William — It is very nearly the size of Illinois, and 
more than forty times as large as Rhode Island, the 
smallest state, and one-fifth as large as Texas, the larg- 
est state. 

[Henry is called upon.] Henry — It is larger than 
either Ireland or Scotland and somewhere near the size 
of England. 

Note. — In the following model recitations in this book it is under- 
stood that the teacher has called upon the pupil whose name precedes 
the answer. The pupils raise their hands when wishing to criticise 
or report additional matter and when a question is put to the class as 
a whole. The teacher selects the pupil whom he wishes shall ans- 
wer the question and calls him by name. Snapping fingers to at- 
tract the teacher's attention should not be allowed. The most back- 
ward pupils sh-^uld be most frequently called upon, the brighter ones 
will raise their hands the most frequently and get the benefit of the 
recitation without special effort on the part of the teacher. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 185 

Teacher — Carrie, describe the surface of Iowa. 

Carrie — ^There are no mountains or very high hills. 
There are bluffs along the streams. It is called a Prai- 
rie State, but there is a considerable amount of timber 
on the banks of the streams. It has a general slope to 
the south. 

Teacher— Anything further under this head? 

John— There are two minor drainage slopes, one 
south-eastward to the Mississippi, the other south-west- 
ward to the Missouri. 

Teacher — Class, how can you tell by looking at a 
map what direction the land slopes? 

Mary— By the way the rivers run. They always 
run down hill. 

Teacher — What is the ridge of land from which the 
water flows in opposite directions called? 

Many voices — A water shed. 

Teacher — James, what of the rivers of Iowa? 

James — The Mississippi River forms its eastern boun- 
dary and the Missouri its western. The principal rivers 
in the interior of the State are the Des Moines, Skunk, 
Iowa and Cedar rivers which run towards the south-east 
and empt}^ into the Mississippi. The Little Sioux and 
Nishnabotany run south-west and empty into the Mis- 
souri. 

Teacher — Albert, what of Lakes? 

Albert — There are no large lakes, but numerous 
small ones in the northern part. The largest is Spirit 
Lake containing about 12 square miles. 

Henry — The Walled Lakes are great curiosities. 
There is an embankment of earth all around them as 
though thrown up by the hand of man. 



186 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Teacher — Can any one explain this phenomenon. [No 
answer.] I will leave this point until to-morrow. I 
want each one to try and find an explanation. Ask 
your parents or, perhaps, some of you have a large at- 
las of Iowa, which will explain it. There is a natural 
cause for this singular phenomenon and I want you to 
find it out. We will pass to the next topic. 

This is sufficient to illustrate the manner of conduct- 
ing a recitation in Advanced Geography. The teacher 
who can not get up enthusiasm in his class in this way 
is a failure. The remainder of the recitation will be 
similar to the foregoing. If the time will not permit the 
full discussion of one state, make two or more lessons of 
it. The map drawn by the pupil sent to the board 
should be criticised before the close of the recitation and 
the necessary talk about the next lesson should not be 
neglected. The teacher may impart some information 
not found in the text-books, concerning the next lesson, 
give instructions as to the manner of study, &c., &c. 
When the next recitation is called the first step should 
be a review of the last lesson and to call up any points 
left over for investigation. 

PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY, 

I here give a report of a lesson to a class just begin- 
ning the study. The teacher steps to the board and 
draws a straight line, saying, Children, we are now go- 
ing to commence the study of Geography. The word 
means a description of the surface of the earth. We 
live on the earth and Geography describes what we 
may see on its surface or outside. We are going to be- 
gin right at home. Suppose I should want to write to 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 187 

one of my friends in Ohio and tell him that I was teach- 
ing school and wanted to describe to him just what kind 
of a school-room I had and how every thing was ar- 
ranged in it, how could I best make it plain to him? 
Hands up now, all who can answer. 

John. John — You could make a picture of the school- 
house and send it to him. 

Teacher — Yes, that would show it plainly, but I can 
not draw well enough to make a picture and if I could 
it would take a good deal of time. Can you think of 
no other way? I will tell you. I can draw a map of 
this school-room, so that our friend in Ohio can see 
exactly how we are situated here. First, we must know 
something about direction. Who can tell me which di- 
rection I am pointing, (pointing to the north). Several 
voices — north. How do you know that is north. (No 
answer). Well, where does the sun rise? Mary. 

Mary — In the east. 

Teacher — And where does the sun set? 

Mary — In the west. 

Teacher — Very well, now if you stand with your 
right hand pointing to the east and your left hand point- 
ing to the west, your face will be to the north and your 
back, where, class? 

Several voices — To the south. 

Teacher — Well, now you know the directions. On 
a map we always represent the top part as north and 
the bottom will be what, of course, then, class ? Sottth. 

Teacher — And the right hand will be what? East. 
And the left? West, This line, I have drawn on the 
board will represent the north and this, (drawing anoth- 
er line parallel to it), the south, and these lines, (con- 



188 METHODS OF TEACHING 

necting the two) will represent east and west. Now 
we have shown the north, south, east and west sides of 
our school-room by straight lines. Now who will step 
to the board and make a dot to represent the right place 
for the stove? (A pupil steps up and makes a mark). 
Is that right, class? (Hands go up). John. 

John — I think it should be nearer the south. 

Teacher — Yes, (pupil changes it) now it is about 
right. 

In this manner give each one of the class an oppor- 
tunity to mark some point on the map. 

Teacher — Now children, we have a map of the school- 
room. It is much easier made than a picture and it 
shows where everything is placed. We could draw a 
map of the school-house yard in the same way and to- 
morrow we will draw one. We could also draw the 
map of a man's farm, or of the school district which is 
made up of a number of farms, or of the township which 
is made up of a number of districts, and so on to the coun- 
ty and state. Here we have maps in our books of the 
states. These crooked lines represent rivers, or creeks, 
these dots, towns and cities. The states are colored differ- 
ently so as to make them appear plainer on paper. 
We could not make a picture of any thing so large as a 
county or state. We can only draw a picture of what 
we can see with the eye by standing in one place. But 
by travelling we know that this is a very large earth 
on which we live. We can see only a small part at 
one time. Now no one man has travelled enough to 
see everything, but many different men have travelled, 
many different ones have written down what they have 
seen, and drawn maps of small portions and measured 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 189 

distances and so by putting all these together we get 
a complete description of the earth and are able to rep- 
resent it on paper by lines and dots and colors, and these 
representations we call maps, and the descriptions of 
places and of things on the surface of the earth is called 
Geography. Now, how many think they can tell me 
to-morrow what Geography is and what a map is? 
(All hands go up). Very well, I will ask you to-mor- 
row. But I must now give you something for to-mor- 
row's lesson. I will write some words on the board 
and I want you to go to your books and find the words 
and find out what they mean. The books will tell you. 
You will find them on page (here shows them the place) 
and I want you all to be able to tell me what these 
words mean. These words are: 

1. Continent. 

2. Island. 

3. Peninsula. 

4. Cape. 

5. Isthmus. 

This will do for your lesson. Write these words on 
your slates as soon as you take your seats. If any do 
not understand what I mean, speak and I will explain 
further. Class excused. 

U. S. HISTORY. 

The first day the teacher has explained to the class 
his mode of teaching, and by reading with the class 
the first few pages of some school history, he has devel- 
oped the following outline, and it is now on the black- 
board. 

Discovery of America, 



190 METHODS OF TEACHING 

1. Alleged Discovery by Northmen. 

2. Circumstances which led to the Discovery by 
Columbus. 

3. Nativity and Character of Columbus. 

4. Difficulties in the way. 

5. Ferdinand and Isabella. 

6. The Voyage. 

7. Land Discovered and Date. 

8. Other Voyages of Columbus. 

9. Death of Columbus. 

Teacher — Henry, what can you tell us about the first 
discovery of America? 

Henry— I could not find anything about the North- 
men in my book. It commences with Columbus. 
(Hands'up). 

Teacher — Philip. Philip — The Northmen claimed 
to have discovered this country about the year looi. 

Teacher — Who were the Northmen? 

Philip — They were the people who lived in Norway^ 
Sweden and Iceland. 

Teacher — This question is not of great importance. 
It is very probable that these northern sea kings, as they 
were called, sailed westward and landed on the coast of 
North America, but they made no permanent settle- 
ments and the route was lost and the existence of this 
Continent forgotten. David, you may tell us what you 
can in regard to the second topic. 

David — Men had come to believe that the earth was 
a sphere and supposed that Asia extended east until it 
nearly reached the western extremities of Europe. 
The mariner's compass had been invented and men were 
enabled to make voyages out of the sight of land. Men 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 191 

had a great desire to find a nearer route to Asia as 
India and China were celebrated for their great riches 
and trade had been carried on with them for many 
years. 

Teacher — Very good, David. Has any one anything 
further on this point? 

George — I read somewhere that pieces of carved 
wood and some strange plants had been washed on the 
shores of Portugal, which led Columbus to think there 
was land beyond the waters. 

Joseph — And a canoe, and the bodies of two men dif- 
ferent from the people of Europe were washed on shore. 

Teacher — Yes, these are some of the principal cir- 
cumstances which led Columbus to attempt this won- 
derful work. James, you may take the next topic. 

James — Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, in the 
year 1435. I can not tell anything about his character. 
I suppose he must have been a great man. 

Teacher — Yes, Columbus was indeed a great man 
for he accomplished a great work, but what is necessary 
to make a man great? Suppose Columbus had said, 
" Well, I suppose there is a new route to the Indies to 
be discovered by sailing west and it would be a great 
thing to accomplish, but I have no means, I can do 
nothing;" do you think this Continent would have ever 
been discovered by him? It was energy and persever- 
ance which made Columbus a great man. He was not 
disheartened by difficulties, but worked away until his 
object was accomplished. But this brings us to the 
next topic. The Difficulties in the Way. Charles, you 
may enlighten us upon this point. 

Charles — Columbus was poor and had no means of his 



192 METHODS OF TEACHING 

own. He applied to his own government and then to the 
King of Portugal and then to Spain but was met with a 
refusal each time. 

I will not carry this any further. The reader has 
some idea now of the manner of conducting a recitation. 
It is not to be supposed, of course, that the pupils will 
all answer so well as here represented, and it must be 
held in mind that much is omitted. The remarks made 
by the teacher and the questions asked to draw out 
backward pupils, if all given here would occupy too 
much space. When the teacher has thus gone through 
with the topic outline he should recapitulate the main 
points in concert or otherwise, and write on the black- 
board the principal date or dates. In this lesson there 
should be but one date put down, 1492. 

Encourage pupils to tell what they know in their 
own language. You can always tell when they are 
quoting the language of the text-book. It is far better 
that they use their own language, though it be ungram- 
matical, hesitating and crude. You have the opportu- 
nity then to criticise and correct their language and thus 
incidentally cultivate their powers of expression. 

The story of Columbus is a most interesting one. It 
is much more important that the class spend considera- 
ble time getting the interesting details of this subject in 
order to fix the main facts and date, than to commit to 
memory the names and dates of all the discoverers and 
explorers from that time down to thfe settlement at 
Jamestown. Several lessons may be made on the out- 
line above, giving different pupils different topics each 
time to report upon. The next lesson to be outlined 
may be, Other Discoveries. Under this may be brought 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 193 

out the principal voyages and discoveries only, and will 
bring the subject down to the period of settlement. The 
pupils should write these topics on their slates, or it 
would be well to have them write on paper, or in a 
blank book and preserve them for future use. 

The energetic teacher will gather from these few 
hints the true method of teaching history. 

GRAMMAR. 

The outline on page — being on the board the teacher 
and class discuss it somewhat as follows: 

Teacher — Mary, can you tell me what a noun is? 

Mary — A noun is a name. 

Teacher — Yes. Every noun is a name, and every 
name is a noun. All those words which are the names 
of objects which you can see, hear, feel, taste or smell, 
and all words which are names of qualities of objects, 
as goodness, sweetness, all names of anything you can 
conceive of, as peace, purity, love, joy, &c. Mary, what 
noun in this sentence? Riches take to themselves wings 
and fly away. 

Mary — Riches. 

Teacher — Why ? 

Mary — Because it is the name of something. 

Teacher — Now we hav« different kinds of nouns and 
I have here arranged the different kinds in an outline 
that I may better fix them in your minds. I have made 
two classes, General and Special, that is all nouns are 
either Common or Proper, but then we sometimes have 
them arranged in special classes as Abstract, Verbal, 
Collective and Class nouns. You have studied your les- 
13 



194 METHODS OF TEACHING 

son in the book as I wished you, to and now who can tell 
me what a Common noun is? Carrie. 

Carrie — A Common noun is a common name or a 
name common to a class of objects, as book, tree, 
house, etc. 

Teacher — Yes. When we say book, we do not 
mean any particular book but the name applies to books 
as a class of objects. Class, is horse a common 
noun? Yes. Why? Because it is a name common to 
a class of animals. 

The teacher will multiply such examples as these, as 
he thinks necessary. 

Teacher — James, what is a Proper noun? 

James — A proper noun is the name of a particular 
individual or object as John, New York, etc. 

Teacher — Yes. When I say John, I do not mean 
any boy or man, but one particular boy or man whose 
name is John, so when I say New York I do not mean 
any city but that particular city which is named New 
York. I think you now understand the distinctions of 
Common and Proper nouns. But here is a point I wish 
you to bear in mind, that Proper nouns are always writ- 
ten with a capital letter and never in any other way. 
If you see the name of a town or person spelled with- 
out a capita], anywhere, you may know it is a mistake, 
it makes no difference who wrote it. I want you to re- 
member this. Thousands of people make such mis- 
takes every dayo Never make this mistake. If you 
learn nothing else here to-day, remember this, and if you 
put it into practice always, it may be worth hundreds of 
dollars to you. You seem surprised, but let me explain. 
Suppose I had charge of a large school where there 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 195 

were several teachers employed and I wanted to hire a 
man to teach in my school. Suppose I should get a let- 
ter from a man making application for a school and he 
should address the envelope in the way, I here write 
it on the board: danville, indiana. Do you suppose I 
would read the letter any further ? He may be an in- 
telligent man and a good teacher in many respects, but 
I would not think so from the letter, and I would not 
waste further time trying to find out. In ninety-nine 
cases out of a hundred I would save time by not even 
opening his letter. So in all kinds of business such lit- 
tle matters as these go a great way. Let me urge you 
to take particular pains to spell and capitalize properly, 
if you do not make such great advances in other things. 
There are other rules for the use of capitals, but this is 
one of great importance and I wish to impress it on 
your minds. 

In a similar manner let the remainder of the outline 
be discussed. The teacher need not talk so much as 
here represented, but the pupil should be encouraged to 
criticise, ask questions, and give definitions. I have here 
given a rather lengthy talk for the teacher in order to 
illustrate the manner in which it is necessary, sometimes, 
to talk to a class. 

ADVANCED ARITHMETIC. 

The class are using Rafs Third Part. Each pupil 
is going as fast as he can. It is impossible to keep a 
class together in a country school, owing to irregularity 
of attendance. The pupils are working in various parts 
of Profit and Loss. 

Teacher — On page 248, the 8th example, Charles; the 



196 METHODS OF TEACHING 

7th, James. On page 249, the 7th, Mary; the 8th, Wil- 
liam; the pth, Lucy. On page 250, Henry, the loth. 
Place your examples on the board as rapidly as possi- 
ble. Let us see how neat you can make your work. 

While this section is at the black-board the teacher 
gives the remainder of the class to whom he has not as- 
signed examples, an oral drill, asking questions on the 
principles involved and making inquiries of each pupil 
as to progress, or explaining some point left over from 
last lesson. 

By this time James is ready to explain his example. 

James — Example 8, p. 248. "A bought 40 bales of 
cotton, at $40 each, and sold it at a profit of $704 ; what 
per cent, did he make?" 

Operation : 
$40 704 176 44 

40 = = =.44=44 per cent. 

1600 400 TOO 

$1600 

Exflanatio7i : If one bale of cotton cost $40, 40 bales 
will cost 40 times $40 which are $1600. He sold it for 
$704 more than it cost him. $704 is ^^-^ of $1600, there- 
fore he gained ^f^ of what it cost. -0^0=1^^= 44 P*^'' 
cent. 

Teacher — What other way could this have been 
solved, class? 

Henry — Divide $704 by $1600 and express the quo- 
tient in decimal hundredths. 

Teacher — The principle is just the same, but James' 
method is much plamer. He has given an analysis of 
the example. Very good, James, you are excused. 
Lucy may explain next. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 197 

Lucy — Example 9th, p. 249. " By selling tea at $1.19 
per pound, I lost 15 per cent; what the cost price per 
ft? 
Operation : 

1. 00 . 85 I 1. 1900 I 1.40 
•15 85 

•85 340 

340 



Explanation: 15 per cent, is 15 cents on the dollar, 
so what cost me $1.00 if I lose 15 cts., I must sell for 
$1.00— $.15 which is $.85, so as often as $.85 is con- 
tained in the selling price $1.19, so many times is $1.00 
contained in the cost price. $1.19-^.85 = i.4o=$i.40. 

When mistakes are made either in the expression on 
the board or in the explanation, the teacher should call 
out criticisms from the class and make such com- 
ments himself as he may deem necessary. 

Teacher — Observe, class, that the per cent, of gain or 
loss is always estimated on the cost and never on the 
selling price. This is a very simple principle if you will 
just think that you can not tell whether you are going 
to gain or lose on any article which you are going to 
sell unless you know what it cost you. If you sell for 
less than cost, you lose ; if for more than cost, you gain. 
Although it is very simple, here is just where a great 
many fail in solving these examples. 

REMARKS. 

I have in this chapter given a few model lessons, or 
partial lessons, sufficient, I think, to illustrate the man- 



198 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ner of teaching these branches. It is not necessary to 
give a model lesson in each branch as the idea may be 
easily grasped from these here given when taken in con- 
nection with the chapters on the respective branches. 
It would be impossible to represent on paper the actual 
work of a recitation conducted by a live teacher, but it 
is hoped these few examples will prove suggestive and 
awaken the true method in the teacher who begins as a 
tyro in the work. 



CHAPTER XII. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

Under this head I propose to make a few suggestions 
which could not well be classified under any of the fore- 
going chapters. I shall not have any general order or 
plan, but shall, in a discursive, irregular way, offer some 
thoughts not spoken of before in this book, and perhaps 
recapitulate and add something to what has already been 
said. 

I. Unconscious Teaching. In the opening chapter I 
have hinted at the fact that a man teaches when he least 
seems to be teaching. All that a man does and thinks 
goes to make up his character, and a man's character 
impresses itself upon all who come in contact with him. 
If his life has been filled with good deeds and thoughts, 
a certain good influence will flow from him and exert 
itself upon all with whom he deals, even upon those who 
know nothing of his former life. On the contrary, if he 
has been a bad man, has committed crimes, or indulged 
to a great extent in wicked thoughts, a bad influence will 
emanate from him, and influence all upon whom it falls- 



200 METHODS OF TEACHING 

We are all, to a certain extent, character readers. We 
read persons by their manner, by their conversation, by 
their looks. Small children, even, are good readers of 
character, although they could not tell you by what rules 
they judge. We take a liking or disliking to persons, 
and we cannot tell why. 

" I do not love jou, Dr. Fell, 
The reason why I can not tell; 
But this alone I know full well, 
I do not love you, Dr. Fell." 

But this much is true, that a good man will be gener- 
ally liked by everybody, that is, they will like him per- 
sonally, though they may hate his actions, or his princi- 
ples, because not in accordance with their own notions ; 
and a hypocrite will be generally despised however well 
he may play his part. 

Every thought and action of your life from infancy to* 
manhood, has a bearing more or less direct on your work 
as a teacher. In other words, the teacher commences 
to develop in influence and constantly adds to his charac- 
ter that which will make him either a good teacher, or 
an inferior one. 

Remember, then, teacher, that you are always teach- 
ing when in contact with others. The teacher should 
be in every sense a man. Strive to cultivate that true 
manhood. Keep a watch upon your thoughts and ac- 
tions, and daily and hourly build a character that will 
constantly teach the good, and the good only. 

But there are some men that are not very good nor 
very bad, sort of wooden men, mere automatons or pup- 
pets, who can tell what they have learned, as a parrot 
says its phrase or an inferior stage actor his piece. You 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 201 

often find them in the school-room. Such men have so 
little character that they do very little unconscious teach- 
ing. Their presence teaches but little, because they 
have so little character to exert an influence. For all 
the good their presence does, the knowledge might as 
well be sent into the school-room through a telephone. 

Again there are men whose very looks and manners 
teach lessons. You feel their magnetic force when you 
take them by the hand, and gather inspiration from their 
eyes. The successful teacher, as well as the men who 
move the world, belong to this class. 

2. Have Syynfathy for Pupils. The true method 
of teaching is drawn from Nature. If we observe how 
a child acquires new ideas when left to itself, we may 
learn how to teach it. When a child makes a new dis- 
covery, or gets a new idea, the first thing it does is to 
make some one else acquainted with the fact. How 
eager the child is to show its mother any new object it 
finds, or to tell about any novelty it has seen. Observe 
how a boy will act after he has been to a circus show. 
Even the infant will hold up its toys for you to look at , 
and admire. We should infer from this, that children 
need encouragement in all their studies by a kind of at- 
tentive sympathy with all their eoffrts to acquire knowl- 
edge. When a child has drawn a picture, or formed a 
letter on the slate, and holds it up for you to look at, you 
Ignore one of the first principles of teaching if you fail 
to notice the child's effort. This principle should be 
carried out with all grades of pupils. Take special pains 
to notice their efforts and give kind words of encourage- 
ment. Never make discouraging remarks about a pu- 
pil's work. If they have through carelessness failed to 



202 METHODS OF TEACHING 

do as well as you think they are capable of doing, never 
make sport of their work nor scold, but say, " that does 
pretty well, but I think you can do better if you try." 
Always make favorable comments whenever you can 
conscientiously, but never compare one pupil's work 
with another's. In the work of the best pupils you can 
point out some defects, and in the work of the poorest 
pupils, you may find something upon which you can fa- 
vorably comment. By thus taking an interest in, and 
showing a sympathy for their efforts you will encourage 
greater effort and secure the good will of all your pu- 
pils. 

3. J?zde no Hobbies. The true teacher has no pet 
theory nor patent method of teaching. He is ready at 
any time to abandon a plan as soon as he finds some- 
thing better. He is always open to conviction. He is 
progressive, and aggressive, radical and even fanatical 
in the search for truth, yet conservative and cautious 
about adopting new methods until he has given them 
thorough study. He has a variety of plans and uses 
different plans for different circumstances. He will not 
try to make a square block fill a round hole. He will 
find objections to all methods and adopt that which, after 
mature deliberation, he finds to be the least objection- 
able. 

4. Study Your own Failures. "The burnt child 
dreads the fire." Here again we have Nature's meth- 
od of teaching. He makes greatest advances who is 
able to see his own mistakes. He who is bigoted and 
self-conceited and never sees his own errors, will make 
but little progress in anything he undertakes. The teach- 
er should observe closely the results of his plans and note 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 203 

where they are successful, and where a failure, and should 
govern his future accordingly. Let him review each 
evening the work of the day and try and find a mistake 
he has made, and resolve to do better the next day. A 
man should criticise himself severely, sparing no self- 
scrutiny with regard to his own actions. 

5. Make the School-Room Attractive. The teacher 
can do something towards relieving the monotony of 
bare walls and plain desks and uncarpeted floor. In 
the first place, he should keep the school-room clean, and 
in order ; and next by use of pictures, mottoes, wreaths 
and flowers make it as attractive a place as possible. 
The school-room should be as attractive in appearance 
as the average homes of the pupils. The nature of 
our daily surroundings has much to do in forming our 
characters. I might enlarge upon this point, but will 
not occupy the space, as the fact will be granted 
by the intelligent reader. You need not go to any 
considerable expense. Get a few pictures framed 
and purchase a half-dozen mottoes, and keep them 
as a part of 3^our stock in trade. Your pictures may be 
chromos, lithographs, or steel engravings which will not 
cost much when neatly framed, but will, if selected with 
taste, form very attractive adornments for the walls. 
Let the subjects be animals, flowers, landscapes, or por- 
traits of distinguished men. Anything in the style ap- 
propriate to a bar-room or saloon will, of course, be out 
of place in the school-room. If framed pictures can not 
be procured, the engravings from illustrated papers 
pasted on the walls with wreaths of evergreens encir- 
cling them, will form very attractive objects, for a time 
at least. A card motto surrounded with a wreath of 



204 METHODS OF TEACHING 

evergreens, makes a very neat appearance on the wall. 
Winter boquets may be made of everlasting flowers, or- 
namental grasses, &c. If the school-room can be kept 
warm enough, a few house plants might be kept through 
the winter, and will add much to the cheerfulness of the 
place. During Spring and Fall terms, plants and flow- 
ers can be had in abundance, and they should form a 
part of the school-room decorations. 

I need not suggest any further to the teacher who has 
a love for the beautiful. If you love the school-room 
and school work, and are a true man or woman, you 
will profit by these suggestions. 

6. The Teacher's Library. Books are to the teacher 
what tools are to the mechanic. As a mechanic can get 
along with a limited number of tools, so a teacher can 
get along with a limited number of books, but as cer- 
tain tools are essential to a mechanic, so certain books 
are essential to the teacher. I would not advise the 
young teacher to spend a great part of his earnings for 
books, nor to go in debt for them, but there are a few 
books which he ought to have, at almost any sacrifice, 
if he would be a good teacher. Let him go without 
paper collars, without tea or coftee, without anything 
finer than jeans pants, rather than without an Unabridg- 
ed Dictionary. Let him board himself and live on ten 
cents a da}'- rather than do without certain necessar}^ 
books. I do not hesitate to say that any teacher can so 
economize his means, can by cutting oft' an expense here 
and denying himself there, save money enough during 
one or two terms of school to procure the essentials of 
a teacher's library. 

An Unabridged Dictionary (Webster's is more ^'i^- 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 205 

erally recognized, although Worcester's is also a stand- 
ard) is an indispensable part of a teacher's outfit. The 
Unabridged is a whole library in itself. There are few 
subjects upon which valuable information can not be 
had by consulting its pages. There are many men who 
own Dictionaries who know but little of what they con- 
tain. I would not only advise the purchase of an Una- 
bridged, but insist on its constant use. If you are not 
already pretty thoroughly read, you will find use for the 
Dictionary in reading almost any species of composition 
you may take up. You should look up the meaning of 
every word about which you have the slightest doubt. 

You should look up the meaning of many simple 
words, the Anglo-Saxon monosyllables which you 
have used from infancy, words which you hear in 
daily conversation, and meet with in your daily read- 
ing. You will find the Dictionary valuable read- 
ing, notwithstanding, as the old lady said, the subject 
changes frequently. Study the etymology of words. It 
will help you greatly in retaining their meaning in your 
memory. 

There are many books designed to help teachers, but 
from which the country teacher can obtain but little 
practical knowledge. I can call to mind about twenty 
different works on teaching and school management, 
which I have read or examined, and among the number 
I could recommend but two or three which would be of 
great benefit to a country teacher. Of course, there is 
much in them that is valuable, but scattered through so 
much that is merely theoretical and impracticable that it 
would not pay the outlay. I would advise, of course, 
that you purchase works on education and read them, 



206 METHODS OF TEACHING 

but beware of buying too many books at one time. It 
would be a good rule never to buy a new book until 
you have read the last one thoroughly. There is one 
book, however, I must recommend to every teacher. 
Though old and though written for students, 3''et as the 
truth it contains will never grow old, and as the teacher 
should be always a student, I can recommend it as next 
in importance to the Unabridged Dictionary. It is the 
Student's Manual, by Rev. John Todd, D. D., a work, 
though small, containing more sensible advice than any 
work I can call to mind. 

One text-book, at least, on each of the following sci- 
ences will gradually find its way into your library. Phys- 
ics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physiology, and Ge- 
ology. The ordinary text-books designed for schools, 
will answer your purpose at first. If you have a class 
in Physiology it will be of advantage to you to procure 
some larger treatise than the ordinary text-book. A 
good work on Composition and Rhetoric will be valua- 
ble. A history of the U. S. larger than those designed 
for schools, and an outline of universal history, will be 
valuable aids in teaching this branch and for self-improve- 
ment. 

There are four books I would like to name here 
which the teacher may procure when he gets able, and 
which he will find valuable as bearing more or less di- 
rectly upon his profession. I will name them in the 
order in which he should obtain and read them. Her- 
bert Spencer's Essay on Education; Deterioration and 
Race Education, Royce; Educational Reformers, Quick; 
Scientific Basis of Education, Hecker. These four 
volumes will give him a pretty thorough knowledge 



. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 207 

of the science of education, and they are standard 
and valuable works, deserving a place in every schol- 
ar's library, whatever profession he may follow. They 
are to be studied, not merely read and laid aside. . 

If the teacher wishes to dip into science, he will find 
a mine of treasures in the International Series of Scien- 
tific books, published by D,, Appleton & Co., New York. 
I would advise the teacher to procure the catalogues of 
the leading publishmg houses and read the notices of 
new books, which are continually appearing. By keep- 
ing posted as to what the world of authors is doing, 
you will be able to select good books only, and buying 
them as you are able, you will, in time, build up a library 
of great value to you in whatever profession you may 
finally choose. 

I would just say here that there are several books an- 
nually published by the U. S. government, and designed 
for the improvement of those who are interested in the 
respective subjects. Among those I would recommend 
to teachers, are the Reports of the Smithsonian Institute, 
to be obtained of the Secretary of the Institution ; the 
Reports of the Commissioner of Education, to be obtain- 
ed of the Commissioner of Education. If these parties 
are addressed at Washington, D. C, by letter, stating 
plainly the book wanted and the year issued, they will 
be sent gratiso These works are frequently distributed 
by members of Congress to particular friends, often for 
political purposes, and thus do not reach the parties who 
would make good use of them. The teacher needs these 
works, and the government designs that such parties 
should have them. It should be remembered that they 
are always issued a year or more after the year for 



208 METHODS OF TEACHING. 

which they are the report. For example, the report for 
1877 will be had sometime during the first of the year 
1879, ^^' letter part of 1878. 

By economy, by abstaining from habits such as 
chewing and smoking, any 3^oung man, can, in a few 
years, save enough to procure a good library. If all the 
money which is spent by young men from the time they 
are sixteen years of age until they are twenty-five to 
gratify their appetites and morbid tastes, was saved and 
invested in good books, they would have a library, of 
which any man of intellectual taste might well be proud. 
Never say, then, that you are too poor to buy books so 
long as you indulge in expensive habits. 

A good book is a treasure and does not even get old. 
Says Milton, " A good book is the precious life-blood of 
a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up for a life to 
come." Commence then, young teacher, to build a li- 
brary. Commence with one book and add to it as your 
means will allow, and you will, in a few years, be sur- 
prised at the result, and if you make judicious selections 
and good use of your books, you will also have a library 
in your head. 

Borrow all the books you can if they are such as you 
think will profit you to read. If you take good care of 
books, and are prompt to return them, you can always 
borrow. 

7. Exercise Tour Pen. Lord Bacon said, " Reading 
maketh a full man, writing an exact man." If you 
would profit by what you read and think, write your 
thoughts down. It is a good habit always to read with 
a pen or pencil in hand. Many an idea is lost because 
not written down. The mind receives ideas one after 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 209 

another and cannot retain them all, although each makes 
its impression. They will make a double impression by 
the act of writing them, and at the same time be pre- 
served for future rehearsal when the mind has forgotten 
the form in which they came, besides, by writing you 
are improving yourself in the power of expression, you 
are cultivating language. Take notes of your reading 
and write down any ideas which your reading may sug- 
gest. 

Write essays on easy subjects, even though no one 
■else ever sees them. Your first efforts will be of little 
benefit to any one but yourself, but they will be of great 
benefit to you. Lay them aside for a year and then 
take them up and read them critically. You will find 
many errors, and see where you could make great im- 
provements. Be the local reporter of yonr neighbor- 
hood. Write for your county paper. Local editors are 
always anxious to have a correspondent in each village 
or township. The teacher is eminently fitted to fill that 
position, and the exercise will be of great benefit to him. 
By thus commencing on a small scale, you will, by and 
by, be able to write for educational journals, for maga- 
zines, &c. I advise you thus to exercise your pen con- 
tinually for your own improvement, and when you have 
improved yourself to a certain extent, your pen will en- 
lighten others, and thus you will become an educator as 
well as a learner. Who knows what future Greeleys 
may come from among the country school teachers. 

8. Recife for Blackboard. The teacher may find 

school-rooms as I have found them, without sufficient 

blackboard. A good blackboard may be made for 

about fifty cents-not more than that. I cannot tell where 

14 



210 METHODS OF TEACHING 

this recipe came from, but I have used it in several school- 
houses. 

Take equal parts of lamp black and flower of emory,, 
and thin with a mixture of equal parts of benzine and 
Japan varnish. Apply two coats to any smooth plas- 
tered wall. 

Where boards of education will not furnish plenty of 
blackboard the teacher may make them ashamed of 
themselves for half a dollar. 

9. Teaching Penmanship. I have ommitted say in g^ 
anything about teaching penmanship in former chapters, 
A word about it here will not be out of place. The 
writing lesson should come near the close of the day, and 
not immediately after play hour, for the reason that pupils 
are tired of study, and writing is a kind of rest from 
more active mental work, and after pupils have been at 
their seats awhile their muscles and nerves have be- 
come quieted. 

If the teacher has not charts to illustrate the principles 
of Penmanship, he should procure a colored crayon, and 
draw on the plastered wall a diagram illustrating all the 
principles, and a copy of all the letters made according 
to system just as they are in the charts or copper-plate 
copy-books. He should insist on all the pupils having 
Spencerian copy-books, or some other similar kind. The 
practice of writing copies should no longer hold. The 
teacher will, however, be obliged to fight against the 
combined opposition' of parents and pupils in some dis- 
tricts. 

The forms and principles of the letters should be stud- 
ied. The pupil should not be allowed simply to copy 
the letter, but should study it until he has an ideal of it 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 211 

in his mind, and then with his eyes fixed upon his pen, 
attempt to reproduce the ideal on paper. The old way 
was to fix one eye on the pen and the other on the copy* 
and try tp imitate it, or if such an ocular feat was im- 
possible, the eyes were alternately fixed on the copy and 
on the pen. When a letter is formed by the pupil, it 
should be compared with the copy and the defects point- 
ed out. As a drill for the class, the teacher may make 
certain letters on the black-board, showing the difTerent 
faults of the pupils, and ask them to point out the faults. 
Many other exercises will readily suggest themselves 
to the thinking teacher. 

Pens, ink, and copy-books should never be allowed to 
remain in the pupils' desks. They should be collected 
at the close of the writing exercise, and distributed again 
v/hen needed. Pupils should be encouraged to take a 
pride in keeping their copy-books clean and neat. 

lo. The Te2cher's Highest Reward. The compen- 
sation paid teachers for their services is small in com- 
parison with the rewards of those who follow other pro- 
fessions. The wages of the best paid teachers are ex- 
tremely low compared with the income of a first-class 
lawyer or physician. Some preachers also get large 
salaries. But professional men generally do not make 
fortunes. The great fortunes are nearly always made 
by merchants, or what are called business men. If your 
highest aim, young man, is to get rich, to amass a co- 
lossal fortune, do not enter a profession. But professional 
men see pleasure in the pursuit of something beside 
wealth. The highest pleasures flow from the action of 
the intellect. An Agassiz, who said he had no time to 



212 METHODS OF TEACHING 

make money enjoyed existence, I venture to assert, much 
more than a Vanderbilt or an Astor. 

The teacher who finds not pleasure in the pursuit of 
his profession, or in the action of his intellect, would better 
quit the profession at once, and engage in some other 
pursuit. But there are times when the best of teachers 
feel discouraged. There are times when their labors 
seem in vain. They have labored patiently day in and 
day out, and their work seems like the labors of Sisy- 
phus, who was doomed to roll a stone to the top of a 
hill, and in spite of all his eflorts it continually returned 
upon him. But remember, teacher, that your work is 
sometimes like bread cast upon the waters, to bear fruit 
after many days. When such thoughts come over you 
read the following poem which is such an excellent piece 
of composition, and so aptly hits the point, that I can- 
not refrain from quoting it entire. It is from the pen 
of W. H. Venable, author of a school history of the 
United States, and other educational works, distinguish- 
ed alike as an educator, author, and poet: 

THE TEACHER'S DREAM. 



The weary teacher sat alone 
While twilight gathered on ; 

And not a sound was heard around, 
The boys and girls were gone. 

The weary teacher sat alone, 
Unnerved and pale was he; 

Bowed 'neath a yoke of care, he spoke 
In sad soliloquy: 

"Another round, another round 
Of labor thrown away, — 
Another chain of toil and pain 
Dragged through a tedious day. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 213 

"Of no avail is constant zeal, 

Love's sacrifice is loss, 
The hopes of morn, so golden, turn, 

Each evening, into dross. 

"I squander on a barren field, 

Mj strength, my life, my all; 

The seeds I sow will never grow, 

They perish where they fall." 

He sighed, and low upon his hands 

His aching brow he prest; 
And o'er his frame, erelong there came 

A soothing sense of rest. 

And then he lifted up his face. 

But started back aghast, — 
The room by strange and sudden change 

Assumed proportions vast. 

It seemed a Senate hall, and one 

Addressed a listening throng; 
Each burning word all bosoms stirred, 

Applau.se rose loud and long. 

The 'wildered teacher thought he knew 
The speaker's voice and look, 
"And for his name," said he, " the same 
Is in my record book." 

The stately Senate hall dissolved, 

A church i-ose in its place, 
Wherein there stood a man of God, 

Dispensing -words of grace. 

And though he spoke in solemn tone, 

And though his hair was gray. 
The teacher's thought was strangely wrought: 
"I whipped that boy to-day." 

The church, a phantasm, vanished soon ; 

What saw the teacher then.? 
In classic gloom of alcoved room, 

An author plied his pen. 



214 METHODS OF TEACHING 

My idlest lad !" the teacher said, 

Filled with new surprise — ^ 

"Shall I behold his name enrolled 
Among the great and wise?" 

The vision of a cottage home 

The teacher now descried; 
A mother's face illumed the place 

Her influence sanctified. 

"A miracle! a miracle! 

This matron, well I know, 
Was but a wild and careless child, , 

Not half an hour ago. 

'And when she to her children speaks 

Of duty's golden rule, 
Her lips repeat, in accents sweet, 

My words to her at school." 

The scene was changed again, and lo, 

The school-house rude and old. 
Upon the wall did darkness fall. 

The evening air w^as cold. 

"A dream !" the sleeper, waking, said, 
Then paced along the floor. 
And, whistling slow and soft and low. 
He locked the school-house door. 

And walking home, his heart was full 
Of peace and trust and love and praise; 

And singing slow and soft and low. 
He murmured, " After many days." 

There are many other things I might suggest to the 
teacher, but as they are so admirably illustrated in the 
Httle book already mentioned, viz: Todd's Student's 
Manual, I will advise the teacher to procure a copy at 
once rather than I should iterate what has been so much, 
better said. There is one matter, however, which I hope 
to be pardoned for mentioning as a closing piece of advice 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 215 

to the teacher. It is a delicate matter and I wish to 
handle it carefully. Let me whisper it in your ear. If 
you are not already mated for life, and have a home 
which is dearer to you than aU else beside, I advise you 
to seek out a congenial spirit, who will share your joys 
and sympathize with you in your difficulties, and be in all 
things a helpmeet and adviser through life. I hope to see 
the day in this country, when the country school-house 
shall have within a stone's throw, a cottage and an acre 
or two of ground to be let to the teacher who will make 
it his home, where he can cultivate the soil for his partial 
sustenance, and where he can have the needful exer- 
cise for his muscles, and an opportunity to gratify his 
taste in growing flowers and fruits. I might grow po- 
etical here, but there is no need of it. This is intended 
as a. practical work and I will leave others the task of 
furnishing the dessert of the teacher's table. I have only 
attempted to furnish some wholesome bread and meat 
for the tyro teacher, and how well I have executed my 
task, I leave the reader to judge. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



HINTS AND HELPS FOR THE TEACHER. 

Gen. Sheridan wrote to Gen. Grant, " Things are in 
a shape to push." Grant replied, " Push things." Let 
me say to you, teacher, country teacher though you are. 
Push things. Though you may have the dingiest log 
school-house, among the rudest of back-woods-men, for 
your theater of operations, let me repeat to you, Push 
things. If things are not in a shape to push, put them 
in a shape to push, and then push. You must have 
push, vim, energy, call it what you will, j/ow must have 
that which will make things go if you would succeed. 

Read the following extracts from some of the leading 
thinkers and educators of the world. You may gather 
inspiration from them and be prompted to take renewed 
interest in your work: 

Ideas make their way in silence like the waters that, 
filtering behind the rocks of the Alps, loosen them from 
the mountains on which they rest. — D' Aubigne. 

In the end thought rules the world. There are times 

when impulses and passions are more powerful, but 

(216) 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 217 

they soon expend themselves; while iiiinct acting con- 
stantly, is ever ready to drive them back and work 
when their energy is exhausted. — McCosh. 

I do not think that it is the mission of this age, or of 
any other age, to lay down a system of education which 
shall hold good for all ages. Let us never forget that 
the present century has just as good a right to its forms 
of thought and methods of culture as any former cen- 
turies had to theirs, and that the same resources of 
power are open to us to-day as were ever open to 
humanity in any age of the world. — Tyndall. 

The profession of the teacher can not be too highly 
estimated. It demands, for its highest success and use- 
fulness, a special knowledge and training beyond the 
scope of the common learning and methodical discipline 
which it labors to impart. The teacher should know 
the Human Mind, and the bodily conditions upon which 
Mind depends. — Hecker. 

People do not understand childhood. With the false 
notions we have of it the further we go the more we 
blunder. The wisest apply themselves to what it is 
important to men to know, without considering what 
children are in a condition to learn. They are always 
seeking the man in the child., without reflecting what he 
is before he can be a man. This is the study to which 
I have applied myself most; so that, should my practi- 
cal scheme be found useless and chimerical, my obser- 
vation will always turn to account. I may possibly 
have taken a very bad view of what ought to be done, 
but I conceive I have taken a good one of the subject 
to be wrought upon. Begin, then, by studying your 



218 METHODS OF TEACHING 

pupils better; for most assuredly you do not at present 
understand them.— Jiottsseazt. 

The object of education, is to promote the normal 
growth of a human being, developing all his powers 
systematically and symmetrically, so as to give the 
greatest possible capability in thought and action. — 
Prof. James yphonnot. 

Education must put the child to work; for by work 
man is perfected. And what he does not achieve, he 
never comprehends; and, hence, the barrenness of the 
word learning of the schools. It profits but little the 
individual, and none at all the race or nation. — Samuel 
JRoyce. 

I discard as selfish in the extreme, that narrow prin- 
ciple, which would look down upon any branch of hu- 
man knowledge as useless or improper, however widely 
they may differ in relative value. Some topics of study 
seem to have no object but the occupation and exercise, 
whether salutary or not, of the mental faculties ; while 
others do not assert a principle, or move a step without 
contributing to the welfare and improvement of the hu- 
man family. — B. D. Mansfield. 

The school-master is one of the chief workmen, I 
may almost say the principal in preparing for the 
genius of America, in the bright years of that futurity, 
the most magnificent edifice that the mind of a nation 
ever inhabited. — Thomas Smith Grimke. 

The greatest thing a human soul ever does m this 
ivorld is to see something, and tell what it saw in a plain 
way. Hundreds of people can talk for one who can 
think, but thousands can think for one who can see. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 219 

To see clearly, is poetry, prophecy and religion, all in 
one. — Ruskin. 

Man's actions here are of infinite moment to him, and 
never die or end at all. Man, with his little life, reaches 
upward high as heaven — downward low as hell ; and in 
his three-score-years of time holds an eternity fearfully 
and wonderfully hidden. — Thomas Carlyle. 

Oh, how hard it is to die, and not be able to leave the 
world any better for one's little life in it! — Abrahain 
Lincoln. 

The great secret of success in life is for a man to be 
ready when his opportunity comes. — Disraeli. 

There is no credit in knowing how to spell, but posi- 
tive disgrace in being ignorant on that point. So there 
can be no credit in doing right, while it is infamous to 
do wrong. — George Francis Train. 

Censure and criticism never hurt anybody. If false, 
they can't hurt you unless you are wanting in manly 
character; and if true, they show a man his weak points 
and forewarn him against failure and trouble. — Glad- 
stone. 

The child, through stumbhng, learns to walk erect. 
Every fall is upward. — Theodore Parker. 

Old truths are always new to us if they come with 
the smell of heaven upon them. — John Bimyan. 

Be a bold, brave, true, honest man. If you know a 
thing is right, do it. If you have a solemn conviction, 
dare to utter it in the fear of God, regardless of the 
wrath of man. — John B. Gough. 

There is no temptation so great as not to be tempted 
at all. — Hannah More. 

It is a principle of war, that when you can use the 



220 METHODS OF TEACHING 

thunder-bolt you must prefer It to the cannon. Earnest- 
ness is the thunder-bolt. — Nafoleon. 

If I take care of my character my reputation will take 
care of itself. — Moody. 

I would rather be right than be President. — Henry 
Clay. 

An instructed democracy is the surest foundation of 
Government, and education and freedom are the only 
sources of true greatness and true happiness among any 
people. — John Bright. 

The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge 
of our own ignorance. — Sturgeon. 

Let the soldier be abroad if he will, he can do noth- 
ing in this age. There is another personage, a person- 
age less imposing in the eyes of some, perhaps insignifi- 
cant. The school-master is abroad, and I trust to him, 
armed with his primer against the soldier in full military 
array. — Lord Brougham. 

Let every man be occupied, and occupied in the high- 
est employment of which his nature is capable, and die 
with the consciousness that he has done his best. — 
Sidney Smith. 

But under whose care soever a child is put to be 
taught, during the tender and flexible years of his life, 
this is certain, it should be one who thinks Latin and 
language the least part of education ; one, who knowing 
how much virtue, and a well tempered soul, is to be 
preferred to any sort of learning or language, makes it 
his chief business to form the mind of his scholars, and 
give that a right disposition : which, if once got, though 
all the rest should be neglected, would, in due time, pro- 
duce all the rest ; and which if it be not got, and settled. 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 221 

SO as to keep out ill and vicious habits, languages and 
sciences, and all other accomplishments of education, 
will be to no purpose, but to make the worse a more 
dangerous man. — yohn Locke. — i6go. 

In our country and in our times, no man is worthy 
the honored name of a statesman who does not include 
the highest practicable education of the people in all 
his plans of administration. — Horace Mann. 

The teacher should permit his pupil himself to taste 
and relish things, and of himself to choose and discern 
them, sometimes opening the way to him, and some- 
times making liim break the ice himself; that is, I would 
not have the teacher alone to invent and speak, but that 
he should also hear his pupils speak. Socrates, and 
since him Arcesilaus, made first their scholars speak, 
and then spoke to them. — Montaigne. — Written in the 
age of ^ieen Elizabeth. 

There is a most remarkable reciprocal action between 
the interest which the teacher takes and that which he 
communicates to his pupils. If he is not with his whole 
mind present at the subject, if he does not care whether 
he is understood or not, whether his manner is liked or 
not, he will alienate the affections of his pupils, and 
render them indifferent to what he says. But real inter- 
est taken in the task of instruction — kind words and 
kinder feelings — the very expression of the features, and 
the glance of the eye, are never lost upon children. — 
Pestalozzi. 

Intelligence and virtue are the foundation and the cor- 
ner stone of the American Republic. Hence, it follows 
that ignorance and wrong are its most formidable foes. 
Its theory is that every citizen must be intelHgent 



222 METHODS OF TEACHING 

enough clearly to comprehend, and virtuous enough 
faithfully to discharge his duties. — Prof. Wm. F. 
Phelp. 

All who consider the subject must admit that the 
teacher is called to labor in a field of vast influence. 
This the teacher should understand, and, though he may 
at times feel almost crushed by the weight of his respon- 
sibilities, and be induced to exclaim, " Who is sufficient 
for these things?" yet let him persevere, trusting in 
Him from whom cometh all needed assistance, ever 
aiming at a nearer approximation to the mark of per- 
fection, ever striving to remove defects and cultivate 
excellences. — Northend. 

In the name of the living God it must be proclaimed,, 
that licentiousness shall be the liberty — violence and 
chicanery shall be the law — superstition and craft shall 
be the religion — and the self-destructive indulgence of 
all sensual and unhallowed passions, shall be the only 
happiness of that people who neglect the education of 
their children. — Hon. Newton Bateman. 

To teach, whether by word or action, is the greatest 
function on earth. — Channing. 

We want men of original perception and original act- 
ion, who can open their eyes wider than to a nationality, 
— namely, to considerations of benefit to the human 
race, — can act in the interest of civilization; men of 
classic, men of moral mind, who can live in the moment 
and take a step forward. Columbus was no backward 
creeping crab, nor was Martin Luther, nor John Adams, 
nor Patrick Henry, nor Thomas Jeflerson; and the 
Genius or Destiny of America is no log or sluggard, 
but a man incessantly advancing, as the shadow on the 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 223 

dial's face, or the heavenly body by whose light it is 
marked. — Ral-ph Waldo Emerson. 

Some teachers have learned how to read mind, to 
understand a class of pupils in a single day's observa- 
tion. ' Some have learned how to encourage one and 
guide another, how to control each one according to his 
peculiarities. The teacher who knows this, as the mu- 
sician knows how to bring out harmonies from the in- 
strument, is the one who can teach easily and success- 
fully, and proves to be the true teacher. Teachers 
should learn, then, how to read character, how to read 
the dispositions of each pupil, and how, therefore, to 
manipulate each one in the best manner to secure the 
highest success. — Nelson Sizer. 

If we work upon marble, it will perish. If we work 
upon brass, time will efface it. If we rear temples, they 
will crumble into dust. But if we work upon immortal 
minds — if we imbue them with high principles — with 
the just fear of God and of their fellow men, — we en- 
grave upon those tablets something which no time can 
efface, but which will brighten to all eternity. — Daniel 
Webster. 

It requires more care and attention, more experience 
and sagacity, and a more intimate acquaintance with 
the principles of human nature, to direct the opening 
intellect in its first excursions in the path of knowledge, 
than to impart to it instructions respecting any particu- 
lar science in after life. — Thomas Dick. 

Before the earnestness of truth and sincerity, the glit- 
tering charms of wordy eloquence, or the seductive 
imagery of unhallowed genius, sink into insignificance. 
— Mrs, Lincoln Phelps. 



224 METHODS OF TEACHING 

The end of education is the power or art of thinking. 
This power is acquired, but never inborn. It is always 
the price of long-continued and patient study. Talents 
though " angel bright," and even genius, need culture, 
to be educated, as really as the most ordinary intellects. 
The mere absorption of knowledge, as the sponge ab- 
sorbs water, gives no discipline ; and hence the acquir- 
ing of knowledge is not the object to be gained, but 
the development of mental power. — Orcutt. 

A believer in the doctrine "the physician born not 
made," (a motto on a par with " the teacher born, not 
made)," once said to a distinguished oculist, who was 
advocating the necessity of thorough training in his pro- • 
fession: "Why, doctor, you have attained the highest 
skill without such aid." The oculist replied, "But I 
spoiled a bushel of eyes in acquiring the art, and now I 
can teach others to avoid my blunders." Contrasts 
most marked I often witness in schools similar in other 
conditions, except that an expert teaches the one, and a 
novice experiments in the other. In the one you see 
order, interest, activity, cheerfulness, and joy of consci- 
ous progress; in the other, confusion, whispering and 
mischief, or listlessness, indolence, and dislike of study. 
—B. G. Northrof. 

Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; 
and with all thy getting get understanding. — SoIomo7i. 

Education is intended to enlighten the intellect, to 
train it and the moral sentiments to vigor, and to repress 
the too great activity of the selfish feelings. But how 
can this be successfully accomplished, when the facul- 
ties and sentiments themselves, the laws to which they 
are subjected, and their relations to external objects, are 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 225 

unascertained? Accordingly, the theories and practices 
observed in education are innumerable and contradict- 
ory; which could not happen if men knew the constitu- 
tion of the object which they were training. — Geo. 
Combe. 

Nothing is comprehended so fully and distinctly, noth- 
ing retained so firmly, as that which we find ourselves. 
— Kant. 

Each one of us has in himself his ideal prize man — 
that is, the harmonious maximum of all his individual 
predispositions; and it is the business of education to 
develop him into full growth. — Richter. 

The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not 
to such a degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable 
of change, and he must also be sure that the pupil shall 
learn through his experience the independence of the 
object studied, which remains uninfluenced by his vari- 
able personal moods, and the adaptation on the teacher's 
part must never compromise this independence. — Rosen- 
kranz. 

The profession of pedagogy is the latest comer among 
the liberal professions of this country. The law, theol- 
ogy, and medicine, are already crowded so with partially 
and well-educated candidates, that the people are able 
to select the wheat from the chaff. No community of 
any considerable pretension is now compelled to take 
up with a pettifogger for its lawyer, a quack for its doc- 
tor, or an ignorant gospel ranter for its minister. The 
objective point of our system of Normal education is to 
stimulate the preparation of teachers, by agencies, pub- 
lic and private, popular and collegiate, till the same 
" glut in the market," enables the school committees to 
15 



226 METHODS OF TEACHING 

go into the field and choose the best the money suppli- 
ed by the people will command. — Rev. A. D. Mayo. 

The faithful and competent teacher never fails to se- 
cure the confidence, respect, and even affection of his 
pupils. He is, as he ought to be, esteemed " in place of 
a parent." He is thought to be infallible. He ought 
therefore, to be correct. He is esteemed as possessing 
the whole Cyclopsedia of knowledge. He ought, there- 
fore, to be a man of extensive acquaintance with the 
principles of science. He is thought by the confiding 
pupil to be incapable of any measure, or even intention 
at variance with honest views of promoting the best in- 
terests of those entrusted to his care. And he ought 
accordingly, to enlist all his energies in promoting the 
solid improvement and moral growth of every mind sub- 
mitted to his influence. — Win. H. McGuffey. 

For precept must be upon precept, precept upon pre- 
cept; line upon line, line upon line; here a little, and 
there a little. — Isaiah. 

Learning is but an adjunct to ourself. — Shahesfeare^ 

A mother tells her infant that two and two make 
four, the child is able to count four for all the purposes 
of life, till the course of his education brings him among 
philosophers, who fright him from his former knowledge 
by telling him that four is a certain aggregate of units. 
— Samuel yohnson. 

Books, schools, education, are the scaffolding by means 
of which God builds up the human soul. — Humboldt. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. 

— Tho'mson. 

What is defeat? Nothing but education — nothing 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 227 

but the first step to something better. — Wendell Phill- 

Country schools need the very best teachers, men and 
women of broad views and culture, of experience and 
knowledge of human nature, men and women fitted to 
be leaders in these little communities. I know of no 
position of more influence than that of a teacher in a 
country district where a healthy public sentiment pre- 
vails. If possessed of any qualifications for leadership, 
the teacher becomes almost inevitably, a leader of 
thought and opinion. His influence is not bounded by 
the school-room walls, but extends to every home in the 
district. If this teacher be vain, frivolous, silly: if im- 
moral or the slave of filthy habits, from that school will 
proceed influences that will curse every home in the 
district ; if that teacher be pure, noble-minded, strong- 
souled, as a teacher ought to be, the streams flowing 
from that school will be streams of blessing, like those 
" which make glad the city of God." — Mary Allen West. 

Now, I believe that a school, in order to be a good 
one, should be one that will fit men and women, in the 
best way, for the humble positions that the great mass 
of them must necessarily occupy in life. It is not nec- 
essary that boys and girls be taught any less than they 
are taught now. They should receive more practical 
knowledge than they do now, without a doubt, and less 
of that which is simply ornamental; but they cannot 
know too much. I do not care how much knowledge 
a man may have acquired in school, that school has 
been a curse to him if its influence has been to make 
him unhappy in his place, and to fill him with futile am- 
bitions. — y. G. Holland. 



228 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Knowledge which costs nothing, which is not bom 
of the travail of the soul, is fleeting and unprofitable. 
Explain a point to a class, be it never so clearly; impart 
information even of the most interesting and valuable 
character ; and, if it be not fastened in the mind of the 
pupil, be not digested and assimilated by a subsequent 
mental operation, it will soon pass away. Gradgrind 
may fill the little pitchers ranged before him to over- 
flowing, but they will not hold water. Here is the great 
benefit of class-drill and reviews. They force the mind 
to appropriate knowledge, and so retain what else would 
be suffered to escape. — y. Dornian Steele. 

Do not seek happiness in what is misnamed pleasure. 
Seek it rather in what is termed study. * * * Learn 
to make a right use of your eyes ; the commonest things 
are worth looking at, even stones and weeds, and the 
most familiar animals. Read good books, not forgetting 
the best of all; there is more true philosophy in the 
Bible than in every work of every skeptic that ever 
wrote ; and we would be all miserable creatures with- 
out it. — Hugh Mille7'. 

He who would teach well and to advantage, must not 
only understand the subjects which he is to teach; he 
must know how to enable it to grasp the mental food 
offered; and he must be able to put that food into such 
a shape that it may be grasped by the learner. — Anna 
C. Brackett. 

Beyond his judicious preference for his own well-ap- 
proved, though unpretending weapons; beyond his 
modest, but self-respectful reliance upon his own self- 
developed powers; beyond his prompt, but unostenta- 
tions acceptance of the duty and the trial providentially 



IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 229 

imposed upon him ; beyond that imperturbable coolness 
and calmness which stamped him every inch a man, as 
well as a hero; — beyond all this, let the true teacher 
discover, and ponder well, that lesson of simple unwav- 
ering faith in a divine guidance and support, which he, 
in his conflicts with ignorance and insubordination, needs 
not less than did David in his memorable combat with 
the giant of Gath; and may he, in his time of need, both 
seek and find that guidance and support, and through 
them, come oft conqueror indeed. — yewell. 

The human mind is the brightest display of the power 
and skill of the Infinite Mind with which we are ac- 
quainted. It is created and placed in this world to be 
educated for a higher state of existence. Here its fac- 
ulties begin to unfold, and those mighty energies, which 
are to bear it forward to unending ages, begin to dis- 
cover themselves. The object of training such a mind 
should be, to enable the soul to fulfill her duties well 
here, to stand on high vantage-ground when she leaves 
this cradle of her being, for an eternal existence beyond 
the grave. — Rev. John Todd. 

Men have tried many things, but still they ask for 
stimulant — the stimulant in use requires the use of more. 
Men try to drown the floating dead of their own souls 
in the wine-cup, but the corpses will rise. We see their 
faces in the bubbles. The intoxication of drink sets the 
world whirling again, and the pulses playing music, and 
the thoughts galloping, but the fast clock runs down 
sooner, and the unnatural stimulation only leaves the 
house it fills with the wildest revelry — more silent, more 
sad, more deserted, more dead. There is only one 
stimulant that never fails, and yet never intoxicates — 



530 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Duty. Duty puts a blue sky over every man — up in 
his heart may be — into which the sky-lark, Happiness, 
always goes singing. — Geo. D. Prentice. 



INDEX. 



Agreeableness 

Architecture, School 

Animal Food 

Appetite for Fiction 

Authors 

Attractive, Make the School-Room 

Automatons, Teachers as 

Advanced Geography 

Advanced Arithmetic 

Advanced Spelling 

Advanced Reading 

Apparatus 

Alphabetic Method 

Alphabet 

Alphabet Blocks 
Autocrat of the School-room 
Application for School 
Associations, Teacher's 
Attendance, Irregular 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene 
Acoustics 

Algebra . . . . , 
Attention, Habits of 
Arithmetic . . . ■ 

(231) 



13-29 

55 
16 

21 

20 

203 

200 

I 18 -183 

99-195 
89 
81 
62 

71 
74 

46 
29 

31 
III 

149 

153 

155 

43 

99-195 



232 



INDEX. 



Astronomy 

Accent in Reading 

Addition 

Articulation 

Abbreviations . 

Addressing Letters 

Analysis . 

Benevolence 

"Big Head" . 

Bargains with Directors 

Bright Pupils 

Black-board, Necessity of . 

Black-board, Recipe for Making 

Books for the Teacher 

Blocks ...... 

Boards of Education, Secure Aid of 
Boards of Education, Teachers instruct 
Buildings .... 

Beginning, Make a Good 
Business, Show that you Mean 
Bigoted Teachers 
Biography, Works of 
Botany ..... 

Brain, Well-balanced 
Boarding .... 

Bathing .... 

Borrow Books 

Bones .... 

Bills, Merchant's 
Beginners, Teaching, to Read 
Capital Letters, Use of 
Construction of School-houses 
Calisthenic Exercises 
"Coming Man" 
Contract with School Boards 
Costume .... 

Coercive Measures 
Collect Specimens 



155 
82 

lOQ 

69-75 
89 

95 
73-112 

ir 

29 

49 
61 

209-62 
205, 
50 
34 
57 
56 
35 
38 
13 
21 

22-l6c> 

T3 

15 

17 

208 

15a 

107 

70 

79 

55-61 

51 
46 

30 

25 

48 

22-159 



INDEX. 



233 



Cheating 


. . . 


174 


Companions, Politeness to 


177 


Circulation . . . . . . 


152 


Colds 


67 


Constitution of U. S. should be read in Clas 


5ses 87 


Compass of the Voice ... 


82 


Carbonic Acid 


64 


Compound Numbers 




105 


Cancellation 




100 


Convection 




66 


Classes 




35 


College Education 




19 


Cultivation 




39 


Child, Mind of 




45 


Crime and Education 




56 


Character 




9 


Conscientiousness 




12 


Cheerfulness 




II 


Calibre, Mental 




14 


Cleanliness . . 




17 


Chemistry 




22 


Coffee .... 


* 


17 


Culture 




18 


College Discipline 




19 


Conversation 




29 


Conducting Recitations 




7^9 


Criticisms 




43 


Charts for Reading 


74 


Charts for Penmanship 


210 


Copy-books . . . 


211 


Commissioner of Education, Reports of 


. 207 


Chewing and Smoking 


25 


County Papers 


. 200-87 


Compositions 


133 


Dress ...... 


25 


Democratic form of Government 


46 


Despotism .... 


46 


Discipline 


. 


44 



234 



INDEX. 



"Do Right," the only rule necessary 

Dismissal .... 

Directors * . 

Defining 

Drawing 

Drawing Maps 

Dictionary, Unabridged 

Dickens 

Dignity 

Drills, Oral 

Deception 

Diet 

Digestion 

Division 

Denominate Numbers 

Dictation Exercises 

Difficult Words 

Direction, Idea of 

Dates in History 

Disposition, Cheerful 

Detective, Teacher as a 

Draughts ». 

Delivery 

Declaration of Independence read in Classes 

Decimal Fractions 

Exercise 

Eyes 

Encyclopedias 

Et3rmology 

Encouragement, Give Words of 

Enthusiasm 

Enrolling Names 

Employment 

Expression 

Essays 

Experiments 

Economy 

Exhibitions 



47 
52 
28 



50 

187 

204-62 

20 

180 

100 

173 
16 

152 
102 

105 
91 
95 
187 
144 
II 
II 

76 

87 

109 

15 

153 
62 

205 

201 

44 

38 

48 

10-43 

209 

165 

175 
64 



INDEX 

Elocution 

Eclectic Method 

Emphasis in Reading 

Examination 

Excitation 

Firmness 

Frankness 

Foppishness 

Finger nails, Attention to 

Feuds Among Families 

Farmer 

Force in School-Room 

Force in Reading 

Free School System 

Furniture 

Failures, Study Your Own 

Flowers 

Fortunes not Made by Teaching 

First day of School 

First Reader 

Fourth Reader 

Fiction 

Foul Air 

Factoring 

Fractions 

Fruits 

Geography, Primary 

Geography, Advanced 

Geology 

Greek and Latin 

Grammar 

Grades 

General Exercises 

German boy 

Government 

Generosity 

Globes 

Games 



235 

69 

73 
78 

39 

39 
12 

II 

25 

25 
20 

29 
48 
82 

56 

62 

202 

204 

• 211 

38 

75 
80 

20 

64 

108 

109 

10 

186 

22-164 
18 

36 

52 

53 

44 
179 

62 

16 



236 



INDEX. 



General Reading 


20 


General Knowledge 


22 


Grasping Thought 


83 


Hypocrite ... 


9-200 


Hygiene 


15 


History, U. S. . , 


189 


Hobby-riding 


202 


Highest Reward, The Teacher's 


211 


Higher Mathematics 


155 


Herbarium 


22 


Habits of the Teacher 


25 


Health .... 


15 


Horseback Riding 


16 


Honesty .... 


173 


Honor 


II 


Irregular attendance 


III 


Instruction . . . . 


39 


Institutes, Teacher's 


32 


Institute, Smithsonian . 


207 


Influence of the Teacher . 


27 


Impression, Make a good 


. 29, 38 


Illiteracy in proportion to Expenditure 


. 56 


Independent spirit 


53 


Investigation 


• • 44 


Industry .... 


174 


Impure language . 


180 


Inflection in Reading 


78-82 


Interest .... 


no 


Kindness 


II 


Know Thyself 


14 


Knowledge, General 


22 


Labor, Manual 


16 


Language .... 


77 


Language Lessons 


127 


Lying .... 


173 


Loafing .... 


20 


Listener, Teacher should be a good 


29 


Local Reporter 


209 



INDEX. 



237 



Library for Teachers 


204 


Library for Schools 


63 


Location of School-houses 


58 


Letters 


136 


Love of the Work 


II 


Love for study, how to incite 


44 


Lectures 


42 


Leaves, Collection of 


i6g 


Leaves, Outline of 


161 


Latitude and Longitude, How ta 


ught . 119-125 


Latin and Greek 


18 


Morals and Manners 


169 


Moral Qualifications . 


9 


Mental Qualifications 


10 


Mental Arithmetic 


99 


Moroseness 


II 


Map Drawing 


187 


Map Drills 


116 


Mischief 


46 


Mind of the Child 


45 


Majority, Voice of 


47 


Misdirected funds 


57 


Material for School-houses 


61 


Mottoes 


203 


Meddling spirit 


28 


Magnetic force 


201 


Manual labor 


16 


Magazines 


20 


Muscles 


151 


Mathematics 


155 


Multiplication 


lOI 


Merchant's Bills . 


106 


Model Recitations 


183 


Model Spelling Lesson . 


89 


Models for Parsing . 


140 


Mensuration 


no 


Music 


22 


Noise . . . 


47-61 



238 INDEX. 

Names, Write on Blackboard . . 48 

Newspaper .... 86-93 

Normal Schools .... 19 

Novels .... 21 

Natural Science . . . . 159 

Natm-al History . . . 169 

Numeral Frame .... 62 

Notation and Numeration . . 100 

Natural Tone in Reading . . 76 

Number, Idea of . . . 99 

Neatness . . . . . 25 

Order ..... 12 

Oral drills . . . . . 100 

Obstinacy .... 13 

Organizing ..... 27 

Optics ..... 153 

Orthography .... 88 

Odd Moments .... 20 

Philoprogenitiveness 11 

Physical Qualifications 14 

Primary Geography 186 

Punctuation 68 

Pestalozzi, Quotation from , 44 

Papers, Reading in school hours 49 

Printing Press 97 

Pastry 16 

Preparation for Work 18 

Profession of Teaching 31 

Page, David P., Quotation from 23 

Personal Habits 25 

Programme 35 

Penmanship 210 

Punctuality ' 26 

Politeness 26 

Preliminary work . . . . , 34 

Political 31 

Parents 27 

Painting - 22 



INDEX. 239 

Plan of School-house 95 

Profanity 181 

Pictures in the school-room 203 

Physics 165 

Physiology 149 

Property, Protection of / 178 

Play-grounds 58 

Promptness 176 

Purity of Speech 180 

Poetic License 81 

Poetic feet 81 

Pause in Reading 83 

Pitch in Reading 82 

Processes before Rules 103 

Position in Reading 76 

Perception Cultivated 77 

Phonic method 72 

Pronunciation 93 

Patrons 27 

Percentage no 

Qualitications — Moral 9 

Mental 10 

Physical 14 

Scientific and Literary 18 

Questions 40 

Quantity in Reading 82 

Quahty in Reading 82 

Quiet school 47 

Responsibility 27 

Rhetoric 129 

Recipe for Blackboard 209 

Reports by the Government 207 

Relation of Teacher to Parents 27 

Relation of Teacher to Society 31 

Relation of Teacher to Profession 31 

Religious creed 31 

Religious man 10 

Rest 51 



240 INDEX. 

Ride no Hobbies • 202 

Rewards, Teacher's Highest 211 

Recreation 16 

Recesses 37 

Reviews 40 

Recitations, Manner of Conducting 39 

Recitations, Model 183 

Reverence 179 

Respiration - - - - - 152 

Reading ----- 20, 68 

Rate in Reading - - - - 83 

Radiation of Heat _ - _ 55 

Regular Meals - - - - 16 

Rules ----- 4^ 

Respect - - - - - 178 

System ----- 26 

Scientific and Literary Qualifications - - - 18 

Social Qualities - - - - 13 

School-Room - - - - 203 

School-houses, Construction of - - 55 

School-houses, Location of - - - 58 

School-houses, Plan of - - - 59 

School-houses, Surroundings of - - 58 

School-houses, Size of - - - 59 

Statistics - - - - "5^ 

School Boards - - - - 28 

Shrubbery ----- 59 

Studiousness _ _ - - 27 

Society, Teacher in Relation to - - 31 

Sunday School - - - - 31 

Submissiveness - - - ~ 53 

Self-government - - - - 54 

Spirit of the Teacher - - - - 23 

Spencer, Herbert, Quotations from - 53 

Stories - - - - - 52, 86 

Small pupils - - - - $2 

Sympathy for pupils - - - - 201,12 

Slates ----- 49 



INDEX. 241 

Study, Time for - - - _ ^6 

Swearing - - - _ _ jgi 

Skin, Health of - - - - 17 

Stepping-stone, Teaching a - - 24 

Scrap-book _ _ _ _ ^2 

Spelling - - - - - 88 

Spelling Matches - - - - pi 

Syntax - - - - - 133 

Study your own Failures - - - 202 

Strangers, Politeness to - - - 177 

Speech, Purity of - - - - ' 180 

Special Senses _ _ _ _ j^3 

Specimens, Make Collection of - - 159 
Specimens to illustrate Physiology and Anatomy 154 

Stress in Reading - - - -« 88 

Slur in Reading - - - - 88 

Second Reader - - - - 77 

Stoves ------ 66-137 

Subtraction - - - - - 10 1 

Separatrix, Importance of - - - 105 

Sentence writing - - - - 134 

Student's Manual - _ _ _ 206 

Self-reliance - - - - - 12 

Teaching Power - - - - 42 

Teaching, Unconscious - - - ipp 

Teacher, Responsibilities of -- ' - - 27 

Teacher, Health of - - - - 14 

Teacher, Qualifications of - - - 10 

Teacher, In Relation to patrons - - 27 

Teacher, In Relation to Society - - 31 

Teacher, In Relation to Profession - 31 

Teacher, Library of - - - - 204 

Teacher, Spirit of - - - - 23 

Teacher, Habits of - - - - 25 

Talking too much - - - - 42 

Topics - _ - - _ ^o 

Topic list for study of Geography - 118 

Temperance ----- 16 



242 INDEX. 




Tobacco - - - - 


17-25 


Telephone _ _ _ _ 


201 


Tact - - - - 


28-30 


Taxation for schools - - - 


56 


Tattling _ _ _ _ 


173 


Third Reader - - - - 


7« 


Tables - - - - 


107 


Technical Grammar - - - 


128 


Todd's Student's Manual - 


206 


Tyrants _ _ _ _ 


13 


Tea - - - - 


17 


Teeth, Care of - _ . 


25 


Township Institutes 


33 


Unconscious Teaching 


199 


Unabridged Dictionary 


204 


Universities - _ - - 


170 


U. S. Money 


106 


Unsuspicious - 


II 


Vital processes _ . - 


152 


Venable's poem, Teacher's Dream 


212 


Variety in the school-room 


H 


Vegetables _ _ _ - 


16 


Veracity _ _ _ - 


173 


Ventilation _ - - - 


64 


Visit parents - - - 


■ 28 


Visitors _ _ _ _ 


51 


Write Essays 


209 


Write for county papers, &c. 


209 


Written contract - - - 


30 


Written Exercise 


68-88-99-127 


Wreaths as Decorations 


203 


Webster's Dictionary 


204, 


Worcester's Dictionary 


205 


Wages _ _ _ - 


28-30 


Whispering - - - - 


.8 


Woods, Collection of - 


163 


Wall Maps - - - - 


62 


Warming - - - - 


66 



INDEX. 243 

Windows - - - - - 6i 

Word Method - - - - 71 

Writing Spelling - - - - 90 

Words, Etymology of - - - 205 

Work, Preliminary - - - - 34 

Webb Method - - - - 71 

Weights and Measures _ _ _ 107 



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